B7 - Further Biology (Peak Performance) Flashcards
1
Q
What sort of skeletal structure has an internal skeleton?
A
Vertebrates
2
Q
What does the internal skeleton of a vertebrate do? (3 things)
A
- Provides support
- Enables movement
- Protects internal organs
3
Q
What 4 things combine so that joints can move easily and carry out work?
A
- Bones
- Muscles
- Tendons
- Ligaments
4
Q
Define what bones are.
A
Bones are rigid tissues that make up the skeleton
5
Q
Define what muscle is.
A
Muscle is tissue that contracts and relaxes.
6
Q
Define what ligaments are.
A
Ligaments are tough, fibrous, elastic connective tissues that connect bones together in a joint.
7
Q
Define what tendons are.
A
Tendons are tough, fibrous, elastic connective tissues that connect muscle to bone or muscle to muscle.
8
Q
What do bones make up?
A
The skeleton.
9
Q
What are two actions that muscle tissue can perform?
A
Contracting and relaxing
10
Q
What can connect bones together in a joint?
A
Ligaments
11
Q
What can connect bone to muscle?
A
Tendons
12
Q
What can connect muscle to muscle?
A
Tendons?
13
Q
What is the difference between ligaments and tendons?
A
Ligaments connect bone to bone, whereas tendons can connect bone to muscle or muscle to muscle.
14
Q
How do muscles work?
A
In antagonistic pairs
15
Q
Complete:
Muscles can only move bones by _________.
A
Contracting
16
Q
Muscles can only move bones by contracting, which means what?
A
Getting shorter
17
Q
What is the meaning of muscles working in antagonistic pairs?
A
One muscle contracts while another muscle relaxes
18
Q
How do antagonistic pairs help to lift the lower arm?
A
The biceps contracts and the triceps relaxes
19
Q
a) How do antagonistic pairs help to lower the arm?
b) What would happen if the tendon (connecting the triceps to the bone) was cut?
A
a) The triceps contracts and the biceps relaxes
b) The triceps wouldn’t be able to contract and the arm would remain in the ‘up’ position
20
Q
What are joints covered by?
A
A smooth layer of cartilage
21
Q
What is cartilage?
A
A tough connective tissue that helps reduce wear and tear in a joint by preventing the bones rubbing together
22
Q
What is synovial fluid?
A
An oily fluid that enables the joint to move freely by reducing friction and cushioning the joint against bumps and knocks
23
Q
What are ligaments?
A
Tough and elastic to allow movement and hold the bones of the joint in position at the same time.
24
Q
In which occupations could you find practitioners that are specially trained to help you maintain and improve your health and fitness?
A
Doctors, registered nurses, fitness instructors, opticians
25
What is the role of practitioners, such as doctors, registered nurses, fitness instructors and opticians?
They are specially trained people to help you maintain and improve your health and fitness
26
What does a practitioner need to know about a patient before they can recommend treatment or an exercise programme?
They need to know the patient's medical or lifestyle history, including:
- Current medication
- Alcohol consumption
- Tobacco consumption
- Family medical history
- Previous treatments
27
Why would a practitioner need to know about a patient's current medication before prescribing treatment/exercise programmes?
Different medicines can sometimes conflict with one another
28
Why would a practitioner need to know about a patient's alcohol consumption before prescribing treatment/exercise programmes?
Excessive alcohol intake can cause:
- Weight gain
- Damage to the liver and kidneys
- Interference with some medications
29
Why would a practitioner need to know about a patient's tobacco consumption before prescribing treatment/exercise programmes?
Smoking has been directly linked with:
- Lung cancer
- Heart disease
- High blood pressure
30
Why would a practitioner need to know about a patient's family medical history before prescribing treatment/exercise programmes?
Some medical conditions can be genetic (inherited). It's important to know if any particular conditions run in your family.
31
Why would a practitioner need to know about a patient's previous treatments before prescribing treatment/exercise programmes?
If you have recurring symptoms you might need a different diagnosis or to see a specialist
32
What must a practitioner do before any diagnostic tests are carried out? Why must they do this?
Fully assess the patient to make sure that the treatment is effective and will not make the patient's condition worse or cause another problem
33
The risk of carrying out any tests must be assessed and balanced against what?
The chances of being able to cure or reduce the symptoms
34
What are symptoms?
Visible or noticeable effects on the body which can be used to identify a problem
35
What visible/noticeable signs can be used to identify a problem in a patient?
Symptoms
36
Give 3 examples of treatment/method a practitioner could suggest to a patient to improve their health/fitness.
- Greater levels of fitness
- A period of recovery
- Rehabilitation, e.g. learning how to walk again after an accident
37
Why might a patient's fitness/training programme be modified before completion?
If:
- The patient is finding the programme too hard (the problem could continue or a new injury could continue or a new injury could occur)
- The patient is finding the programme too easy (the progress would be slow and the patient might not recover fast enough)
38
How might a practitioner monitor progress during a patient's training? (2 things)
- Measuring the pulse rate of the patient
| - Measuring the aerobic fitness of the patient
39
# Fill in the gaps.
A patient who is increasing their aerobic fitness should ___a)___ their heart rate and have a ____b)_____ recovery rate. Resting blood pressure should also be ___c)___ reduced by a fitness programme.
a) lower
b) faster
c) reduced
40
What are the benefits of regular contact between a patient and a practitioner? (2 things)
- The practitioner has the opportunity to become more familiar with the patient's medical history and background
- The patient will feel more comfortable and reassured if they see the same practitioner each time
41
Why would a patient and their practitioner stay in contact once treatment/training is complete?
For check-up where questions can be asked about progress and issues. Sometimes tests can be carried out, e.g. with pulse rate
42
What measurement can be used as a fitness indicator?
BMI (body mass index)
43
What does BMI stand for?
Body mass index
44
What can BMI be used for?
A fitness indicator
45
How can BMI be worked out?
Using the following equation:
BMI = body mass (in kg)/ height (in metres) squared
46
How is BMI used as a fitness indicator?
A person's BMI number can be compared with a chart
47
True or False?
BMI measures body-fat levels
False - BMI doesn't actually measure body-fat levels, to do this you need to use a simple meter.
48
An excess of body fat would be an indicator of what?
Poor fitness
49
Why might practitioners disagree about treatment or fitness programmes and their effects? (2 things)
- Due to their previous experiences with patients
- Due to their values such as BMI, for example, only being an indicator (i.e. not an absolutely exact measure) of fitness levels
50
Why is it so essential that accurate records are kept during treatment or fitness training?
Because the records can be used to assess progress and determine trends
51
It is important that accurate records are kept during treatment or fitness training.
What are the problems with inaccurate records? (HT)
Inaccurate records could slow down progress or even make a condition worse.
52
What do progress records need to take into account? (HT)
The accuracy and repeatability of the recording techniques.
53
If a person over-exerts themselves by doing excessive exercise, they can cause themselves what injuries? (3 things)
- Sprains
- Dislocations
- Torn ligaments or tendons
54
Describe some symptoms of a sprain. (3 things)
- Swelling due to fluid building up at the site of the sprain
- Pain (the joint hurts and may throb)
- Redness and warmth caused by increased blood flow to the inured area
55
a) What initialism is used to describe the treatment for a sprain?
b) What does each letter stand for?
a) RICE
| b) Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation
56
Describe each stage of the RICE treatment used for sprains.
```
R = Rest (The patient should rest and not move the injured part of the body)
I = Ice (Ice should be placed on the injury location for short periods, wrapped in suitable fabric to prevent ice burns, to reduce swelling and bleeding)
C = Compression (Gentle pressure should be applied with a bandage to reduce the build-up of the fluid that causes swelling)
E = Elevation (The injured body part should be raised to reduce blood pressure, which would then lead to less blood flow and swelling)
```
57
Talk about the 'R' stage in the RICE treatment for sprains.
The patient should REST and not move the injured part of the body
58
Talk about the 'I' stage in the RICE treatment for sprains.
ICE should be placed on the injury location for short periods, wrapped in suitable fabric to prevent ice burns, to reduce swelling and bleeding
59
Talk about the 'C' stage in the RICE treatment for sprains.
Gentle pressure (COMPRESSION) should be applied with a bandage to reduce the build-up of the fluid that causes swelling
60
Talk about the 'E' stage in the RICE treatment for sprains.
The injured body part should be ELEVATED to reduce blood pressure, which would then lead to less blood flow and swelling
61
In the second stage of the RICE treatment for sprains, why is it important that ice is wrapped in suitable fabric?
To prevent ice burns that could make the patient's suffering worse
62
Why is ice important in the RICE treatment for sprains?
Because it reduces swelling and bleeding.
63
True or False?
In the second stage of the RICE treatment for sprains, ice should be placed on the injury location for long periods of time.
False - Ice should be placed on the injury location for short periods of time.
64
Why is the compression stage of the RICE treatment for sprains so important?
It reduces the build-up of fluid that causes swelling.
65
In the fourth stage of the RICE treatment for sprains, the injured body part is raised/elevated to reduce blood pressure.
What does a reduced blood pressure lead to/help with?
Less blood flow and swelling
66
What does a physiotherapist specialise in?
The treatment of skeletal-muscular injuries
67
a) What do physiotherapists do?
| b) How is this normally achieved?
a) They help their patients re-train or reuse a part of their body that isn't properly functioning
b) With various exercises to strengthen muscles that have become weakened
68
Describe the exercise programme a physiotherapist might recommend to a patient to treat an injured leg. (4 stages)
- Warm up the joint by riding a stationary exercise bicycle, then straighten and raise the leg
- Extend the leg while sitting (a weight may be worn on the ankle for this exercise)
- Raise the leg while lying on the stomach
- Exercise in a pool, for example, walk as fast as possible in chest-deep water, perform small flutter kicks while holding onto the side of the pool, and raise each leg to 90 degrees in chest-deep water while pressing the back against the side of the pool.
69
What are the four components of blood?
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
- Plasma
70
What is the function of red blood cells?
- Carry oxygen
| - Contain red pigment (haemoglobin) which binds oxygen
71
What is the name of the red pigment within red blood cells?
Haemoglobin
72
What is the purpose of haemoglobin?
To bind oxygen together
73
What effect does haemoglobin have on the structure of red blood cells?
To make more room for the haemoglobin, red blood cells have no nucleus.
74
Why do red blood cells contain no nucleus?
To make more room for the haemoglobin
75
a) What shape are red blood cells found in? (HT)
| b) What is the meaning of this? (HT)
a) Bioncave shape
| b) Increases the surface area for more efficient uptake of oxygen
76
What 2 things are important within the structure of a red blood cell that helps more efficient oxygen uptake?
- The red blood cells have no nucleus to make room for more haemglobin, a red pigment that binds oxygen together
- The bioncave shape that increases the surface area for more efficient uptake of oxygen
77
What is the function of white blood cells?
- Fight infection
| - Defend the body against microorganisms
78
What is the function of platelets?
Clotting at injury sites to prevent blood loss
79
Why is the clotting of platelets at the site of an injury important?
It prevents blood loss and allows the wound to heal
80
What is the function of plasma?
Liquid that transports the following around the body:
- Nutrients (e.g. glucose, mineral salts and amino acids)
- Hormones
- Antibodies
- Waste (e.g. carbon dioxide and urea)
81
Give 3 examples of nutrients that plasma liquid could transport around the body.
- Glucose
- Mineral salts
- Amino acids
82
Give 2 examples of waste that plasma liquid could transport around the body.
- Carbon dioxide
| - Urea
83
What are the functions of the four components of blood?
- Red blood cells = Carry oxygen and contain red pigment (haemoglobin) which binds oxygen
- White blood cells = Fight infections and defend the body against microorganisms
- Platelets = Clotting at injury sites to prevent blood loss
- Plasma = Liquid that transports nutrients (e.g. glucose, mineral salts and amino acids), hormones, antibodies, waste (e.g. carbon dioxide and urea) around the body
84
What is most of the heart wall made of?
Muscle
85
Which side of the heart is more muscular than the other? Why is this?
The left side is more muscular than the right because it pumps blood around the whole body (whereas the right side pumps blood only to the lungs)
86
How many chambers of the heart are there?
4
87
How many components are within blood?
4
88
What are the four chambers of the heart?
- Two atria
| - Two ventricles
89
The heart contains two atria.
a) What is the structure of these two atria?
b) What is the function of these two atria?
a) The 2 smaller, less muscular upper chambers of the heart
| b) Receive blood coming back to the heart from the beins
90
The heart contains two ventricles.
a) What is the structure of these two ventricles?
b) What is the function of these two ventricles?
a) The 2 larger, more muscular lower chambers of the heart
| b) Pump blood out of the heart.
91
What does the heart muscle need a good supply of?
Blood
92
Why does the heart need a good supply of blood?
Because the blood contains oxygen and glucose for respiration
93
How is blood supplied to the heart?
Through the coronary artery
94
Where can the coronary artery be found?
Branching from the aorta to the heart muscle.
95
Explain the cardiac cycle. (4 stages)
- The heart muscles relax and blood flows into the atria through veins from the lungs and the rest of the body.
- The atria contract,squeezing blood into the ventricles.
- The ventricles contract and blood is forced out of the lower chambers, which carry the blood to the body and lungs.
- The heart muscles relax and the whole process starts again
96
What part of the heart ensures that the blood flows in the right direction?
The valves
97
What is the function of valves in the heart?
To ensure that the blood flows in the right direction (i.e. not backwards)
98
What sort of circulatory system do humans have?
A double circulatory system.
99
What does having a double circulatory system mean?
That blood returns to the heart twice on every circuit of the body.
100
Explain how a double circulatory system works. (3 stages)
- Deoxygenated blood that has travelled around the body enters the heart via. the right atrium
- It's pumped from the heart into the lungs, where haemoglobin binds to the oxygen, becoming oxyhaemoglobin
- The oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the left atrium and is then pumped to the rest of the body.
101
What are the tough, fibrous tissues that connect bone to muscle?
Tendons
102
What are the pair of muscles that work opposite to each other called?
Antagonistic pairs
103
Name the main artery carrying blood from the heart to the rest of the body (not to the lungs)
Aorta
104
What are the 3 types of blood vessel?
- Arteries
- Veins
- Capillaries
105
What is the function of arteries?
To carry blood away from the heart towards the organs
106
What is the structure of an artery like?
Thick, elastic, and muscular walls that do not let substances pass through. The tube is smaller in diameter than that of a vein
107
Why is the structure of an artery the way it is?
To cope with high blood pressure
108
What makes the structure of an artery suitable for coping with high blood pressure?
Thick, elastic walls that substances cannot pass through
109
What is the function of veins?
To carry blood from organs in the body back to the heart
110
What is the structure of a vein like?
Thinner, less elastic walls and contain valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards. Substances cannot pass through vein walls, and the inner tube of a vein is larger in diameter than that of an artery.
111
Why do veins contain valves?
To prevent the blood flowing the wrong way (backwards)
112
True or False?
Arteries contain larger inner tubes (in diameter) than that of veins?
False - The walls of arteries are much thicker in muscle so the inner tube has a smaller diameter than that of a vein.
113
What is the function of capilleries?
Connecting arteries and veins together
114
What is the structure of a capillery like?
Narrow, thin walls that is only one cell thick.
115
Why is the structure of capillaries the way it is?
Because the exchange of substances between cells and the blood takes place here, so the walls need to be as narrow and thin as they are
116
Describe the three types of blood vessel.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart towards the organs. They have thick elastic walls to cope with high blood pressure and substances can't pass through artery walls
- Veins carry blood from the organs back to the heart. They have thinner, less elastic walls and contain valves to prevent the blood flowing the wrong way and substances can't pass through vein walls
- Capillaries connect arteries and veins and they have a narrow, thin wall that is only one cell thick. The exchange of substances between cells and the blood takes place here.
117
What does the plasma of arterial blood contain? (HT)
The dissolved products from digestion
118
Around the body are networks of capilleries. What are these called? (HT)
Capillary beds
119
The blood flow in capillary beds is very slow. As a result, what does plasma do? (HT)
The plasma leaves and becomes tissue fluid
120
True or False?
The blood flow in capillary beds is very fast. (HT)
False - The blood flow in capillary beds is very slow.
121
What does tissue fluid enable nutrients (such as glucose needed for respiration, oxygen, and hormones) required by cells to do? (HT)
Diffuse into tissue cells
122
What are the functions of tissue fluid? (2 things) (HT)
- Enables nutrients required by cells (such as glucose needed for respiration, oxygen, and hormones) to diffuse into the tissue cells
- Collects and carries away some cellular waste products, such as carbon dioxide and urea
123
What does tissue fluid collect and carry away? (HT)
Cellular waste products, such as carbon dioxide and urea
124
a) Where does most of the tissue fluid return to? (HT)
| b) What happens once it reaches this place? (HT)
a) Capillary bed
| b) It becomes plasma and continues its journey through the body, this time in the veins
125
What does energy loss and energy gain from your body need to be?
Balanced
126
Why does energy loss and energy gain from your body need to be balanced?
So that your body temperature remains constant
127
What does the temperature of your body's extremities tend to be cooler than?
Your core body temperature
128
Where is energy transferred from and to when it reaches the cooler parts of your body?
From the blood to the tissues
129
What things does controlling body temperature require? (4 things)
- Temperature receptors in the skin to detect the external temperature
- Temperature receptors in the brain to measure the temperature of the blood
- The brain, which acts as a processing centre to receive information from the temperature receptors and respond by triggering the effectors
- Effectors (sweat glands and muscles) to carry out the automatic response
130
Why are temperature receptors in the skin important in order to control body temperature?
To detect the external temperature
131
Why are temperature receptors in the brain important in order to control body temperature?
To measure the temperature of the blood
132
Why is the brain important in order to control body temperature?
It acts as a processing centre to receive information from the temperature receptors and respond by triggering the effectors
133
Why are effectors important in order to control body temperature?
To carry out the automatic response
134
What sort of effectors are used in order for the body temperature to be controlled?
Sweat glands and muscles
135
What needs to happen if your body temperature is too high?
Heat needs to be transferred from the body out into the environment
136
How does the body control body temperature when the body is too hot?
Heat is transferred to the environment through sweating, since evaporation from the skin requires heat energy from the body.
137
What happens if your body temperature is too low?
Your body starts to shiver
138
Why does the body start to shiver as a response to the body temperature being too low?
The rapid contraction and release of muscles require energy from increased respiration, and heat is released as a by-product, warming surrounding tissue.
139
Blood temperature is monitored by a centre in your brain called the what? (HT)
Hypothalamus
140
What is the purpose of the hypothalamus? (HT)
To monitor blood temperature
141
Where can the hypothalamus be found? (HT)
In a centre in the brain
142
In hot conditions, what happens to blood vessels in the skin? (HT)
They dilate
143
Why do the blood vessels in the skin dilate in hot conditions? (HT)
Because it allows more blood to flow through the skin capillaries. Therefore, more heat is lost from the surface of the skin by radiation (vasodilation)
144
What is meant by the term vasodilation? (HT)
When the blood vessels in the skin dilate in hot conditions (allowing more blood to flow through the skin capillaries and more heat is lost from the surface of the skin through radiation)
145
In cold conditions, what happens to the blood vessels in the skin? (HT)
They constrict
146
Why do the blood vessels in the skin constrict in cold conditions? (HT)
It reduces the amount of blood that flows through the skin capillaries. This means that less heat is lost from the surface of the skin by radiation (vasoconstriction)
147
What is meant by the term vasoconstriction? (HT)
When the blood vessels in the skin constrict in cold conditions (reducing the amount of blood that flows through the skin capillaries and less heat is lost from the surface of the skin through radiation)
148
What is the difference between vasodilation and vasoconstriction? (HT)
Vasodilation is the response when the body is going through hot conditions, whereas vasoconstriction is the response when the body is going through cold conditions.
149
What are the responses of vasodilation and vasoconstriction examples of? (HT)
Effectors working antagonistically
150
Why does the fact that vasodilation and vasoconstriction are an antagonistic pair important? (HT)
To restrict or increase blood flow near the skin surface, allowing a very controlled response.
151
Why is a controlled response important with vasodilation and vasoconstriction? (HT)
It allows a gradual increase (or decrease) in blood flow, depending on the strength of the stimulus. This means that the body temperature doesn't get too high or low.
152
What can lead to sugar being found in the blood?
Through the digestion of carbohydrates after a meal
153
What organ in the body deals with the rising of blood sugar levels?
The pancreas
154
How does the pancreas deal with rising blood sugar levels?
It releases a hormone called insulin which makes cells remove sugar from the blood
155
What is the function of insulin?
It makes cells remove sugar from blood
156
In what circumstance would the pancreas need to release insulin?
Rising of blood sugar levels
157
What do cells use sugar for?
Functions such as respiration
158
What might happen if the hormone release (of insulin from the pancreas) for whatever reason goes wrong?
Lead to diabetes
159
What causes diabetes?
If, for whatever reason, the release of the insulin hormone by the pancreas (because of high sugar levels in the blood) goes wrong
160
What are the two types of diabetes?
- Type 1 (occurs when the pancreas stops producing enough insulin. This type is often genetic. It can be controlled by insulin injections and diet.)
- Type 2 (occurs when the body stops responding to its own insulin, or doesn't make enough of the hormone. This type is often caused by old age, or as a result of a poor diet or obesity, and is sometimes referred to as late-onset diabetes. It can be controlled by diet and exercise.)
161
Which of the two types of diabetes is genetic?
Type 1
162
How can type 1 diabetes be controlled?
By insulin injections and diet control
163
How might type 2 diabetes be caused?
Through old age or as a result of poor diet/obesity
164
What is type 2 diabetes often referred to?
Late-onset diabetes
165
How can type 2 diabetes be controlled?
By diet and exercise
166
What is the name for sugars found in processed foods?
Simple carbohydrates.
167
Where can simple carbohydrates be found?
In processed foods.
168
What is the name for sugars found in other foods, such as fruit?
Complex carbohydrates
169
Where can complex carbohydrates be found?
In foods such as fruit
170
True or False?
Simple carbohydrates release sugar quickly into the bloodstream.
True.
171
What is caused as a result of simple carbohydrates releasing sugar quickly into the bloodstream?
A rapid rise in blood sugar level
172
a) How quickly do complex carbohydrates release sugars into the bloodstream?
b) Why is this?
a) Relatively slowly
| b) So that they're more likely to help maintain a constant sugar level
173
a) What can soluble fibre do?
| b) Why is this important?
a) Release sugar slowly from digestion in the intestine
| b) This can help to prevent blood sugar levels becoming too high
174
Where can soluble fibres be found?
In fruits, oats and beans
175
What can an unhealthy diet cause as well as diabetes?
Heart disease and some cancers, e.g. of the bowels.
176
a) What can help to maintain fitness and a healthy body mass?
b) Why is this?
a) Regular exercise
| b) Because it helps to use up sugar rather than store it
177
What is obesity shown to link to?
Dietary patterns
178
Why are complex carbohydrates more likely to maintain body sugar levels than simple carbohydrates?
Complex carbohydrates release sugar slowly, whereas simple carbohydrates release sugar rapidly.
179
In the organs, capillary beds allow exchange of substances between the cells and the blood.
Describe how this exchange occurs, giving two examples of substances that pass between the cells and blood. (HT)
Substances like glucose and oxygen diffuse out of the blood into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells and then into the cells for use. Sustances like urea and carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cells into the tissue fluid and then into the blood for removal.
