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Biology Paper 1 > B3 - Infection and response > Flashcards

B3 - Infection and response Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

Disease caused by a pathogen that can be spread between animals or plants.

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2
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A disease causing micro-organism.

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3
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A protein found on the surface of a cell that are used to identify that cell and can trigger an immune response if the antigen is foreign.

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4
Q

How do bacteria cause disease?

A

Once inside the body they divide rapidly by binary fission. They kill cells and produce harmful toxins.

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5
Q

How do viruses cause disease?

A

They invade and reproduce inside living body cells, leading to cell damage.

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6
Q

Give three ways in which pathogens can be spread.

A

Air (droplet infection)
Water
Direct contact (STI’s)

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7
Q

Give four ways that the spread of pathogens can be reduced (4).

A

Hygiene
Removal of carriers by using pesticides and insecticides
Reducing contact with infected people
Vaccination

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8
Q

Why is it especially important to stop the spread of viral diseases?

A

Scientists have not yet developed cures for many viral diseases.

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9
Q

What are measles?

A

Measles is a serious viral disease that can cause blindness and brain damage. Symptoms are a red skin rash and a fever.

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10
Q

How are measles spread?

A

By air - from the inhalation of droplets from coughs and sneezes.

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11
Q

What is HIV/AIDS?

A

HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system until it can no longer function properly.
AIDS is the condition resulting from the long-term HIV infection. There is no cure.

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12
Q

How is HIV spread?

A

Direct sexual contact and exchange of bodily fluids.

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13
Q

How can the spread of HIV/AIDS be prevented?

A

Use of condoms
Not sharing needles
Screening of blood for transfusions

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14
Q

What is tobacco mosaic virus?

A

A plant pathogen which damages cells causing leaf discoloration.

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15
Q

How is TMV spread?

A

Contact between healthy and infected plants.
Insects can act as a vector.

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16
Q

What is salmonella?

A

A type of bacteria found in raw meat, poultry and eggs. They enter the body via food poisoning and affect natural gut bacteria.

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17
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella food poisoning? (5 points)

A

Fever
Abdominal Cramping
Vomiting
Diarrhoea
Can be fatal to very young or elderly due to risk of dehydration

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18
Q

How can the spread of salmonella be limited? (4 points)

A

Thoroughly cooking raw meat
Disinfect hand and surfaces after contact with raw meat
Vaccinating animals intended for consumption
Keep raw meat away from cooked meat

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19
Q

What is gonorrhoea?

A

A sexually transmitted bacterial infection from unprotected sex with an infected individual.

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20
Q

What is rose black spot?

A

A fungal disease which cause purple or black spots to develop on rose leaves.

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21
Q

How is rose black spot spread?

A

Fungal spores are spread by the wind and in water.

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22
Q

How can rose black spot be treated?

A

Using fungicides.
Cutting off infected leaves.

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23
Q

What is malaria?

A

A disease caused by protist pathogens. Carried by mosquitos.

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24
Q

How can the spread of malaria be reduced?

A

Using insecticides.
Using insect nets to avoid bites.
Antimalarial drugs.

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25
Q

How does the skin prevent pathogens from entering the body? (4 points)

A

Acts as a physical barrier.
Scab formation after skin is cut or wounded.
Healthy skin flora compete with pathogens
Oil repels pathogens

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26
Q

How does the respiratory system prevent pathogens from entering the body?

A

Nose - has hairs and mucus which trap pathogens
Trachea and Bronchi - have mucus that traps pathogens
Ciliated cells then move mucus from trachea and bronchi to mouth so it can be swallowed

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27
Q

How does the stomach prevent pathogens from infecting the body?

A

Secreting hydrochloric acids- kills any pathogens present.

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28
Q

How does phagocytosis protect us against disease?

A

White blood cells (phagocytes) ingest and destroy pathogens so they cannot infect more cells.

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29
Q

How does antibody production protect us against disease?

A

White blood cells produce specific antibodies which fit together with antigens on a pathogen. The antibodies kill the pathogen. In case of second infection, the correct antibodies can be made rapidly, preventing the person from getting the same disease again.

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30
Q

How does antitoxin production protect us against disease?

A

Antitoxins binds to toxins released by pathogens and neutralises them.

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31
Q

What is a vaccination?

A

Contains a dead or inactive form of a pathogen.
Which stimulates white blood cells to produce specific antibodies.
In case of a second infection, memory cells rapidly produce the correct antibodies to prevent illness.

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32
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

A high proportion of a population is immune to a disease so, the spread of disease will be limited.

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33
Q

Advantages of vaccinations. (3 points)

A

Eradicated deadly disease.
Many epidemics can be prevented.
Herd immunity means that those who cannot have vaccinations stay safe.

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34
Q

What are the disadvantages of vaccinations?

A

Side effects - sore arm, may get symptoms of the disease.
Doesn’t protect against every variation of a pathogen.

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35
Q

What drugs can be used to cure some bacterial disease?

A

Antibiotics - they can kill bacterial infections inside the body.

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36
Q

How do antibiotics work?

A

Kill bacterial pathogens but don’t kill human cells.

37
Q

Why can antibiotics not be used to treat viral diseases?

A

Viral pathogens live inside human cells. Therefore, it is difficult to design a drug that will kill the pathogen but not the human cells.

38
Q

What is antibiotic resistance?

A

When mutations lead to an individual bacteria becoming resistant to the antibiotic.
Which can mean that there is no cure to the disease that they cause.

39
Q

How can we prevent antibiotic resistance?

A

Don’t overuse antibiotics.

40
Q

What effect do painkillers have on infectious disease?

A

Can only stop symptoms, does not kill pathogens.

41
Q

What plant is the heart drug digitalis extracted from?

A

Foxgloves

42
Q

What painkiller comes from a compound found in willow bark?

A

Aspirin

43
Q

What are the 4 qualities of a good medicine?

A

Safe
Effective
Easy to be taken in and removed
Stable

44
Q

What 3 main factors are tested when developing new drugs?

A

Toxicity
Efficacy
Dose

45
Q

How is preclinical testing carried out?

A

Using cells, tissues and live animals.

46
Q

How is clinical testing carried out?

A

First testing on healthy volunteers and then tested on a large scale on patients to find the optimum dose.

47
Q

What is a placebo?

A

A fake version of the drug, to test its efficacy.

48
Q

What happens in a single-blind trial?

A

Only the doctor knows who was given the placebo and who was given the real drug.

49
Q

What happens in a double-blind trial?

A

Neither the doctor or the patient knows whether they were given the placebo or the drug. Removes the bias of the doctor.

50
Q

What is a peer review?

A

When the results of a drug trial are looked over by scientists knowledgeable in this field.

51
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

Antibodies that are clones from one parent cell. (B-lymphocytes). Specific to one type of antigen.

52
Q

Describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced.

A
  1. Specific antigen injected into an animal (e.g. a mouse)
  2. The B-lymphocytes that are producing the complementary antibodies are extracted.
  3. Those B-lymphocytes are then fused with a cancer cell to form hybridoma cells - which can divide rapidly and produce antibodies.
  4. The hybridoma cells are cultured.
  5. The antibodies are then harvested.
53
Q

What are the uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Detection of pathogens.
Location of cancer cells and blood clots.
Treatment in cancer.
Used in pregnancy testing kits.

54
Q

What do pregnancy kits test for?

A

HCG (chemical produced by the placenta) in urine.

55
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies detect pregnancy?

A

HCG in urine binds mAbs and causes a colour change.

56
Q

What are three advantages for using Monoclonal antibodies to detect pathogens?

A

Specific to one particular pathogen.
Very accurate.
Quick results.

57
Q

Why can monoclonal antibodies be used to target cancer cells?

A

Cancer cells have antigens called ‘tumor makers’ on their membrane.
Because monoclonal antibodies only bind to one specific antigen they can target tumor markers without damaging any other cells.

58
Q

Why are cancer treatments involving monoclonal antibodies favored over radiotherapy/chemotherapy?

A

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy both damage healthy cells as a consequence. Monoclonal antibodies only target antibodies, reducing damage to normal cells.

59
Q

What is in the blood?

A

Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

60
Q

What is the function of platelets?

A

Clots the blood.

61
Q

What is the function of plasma?

A

Transports nutrients, such as carbon dioxide, and heat around the body (thermoregulation).

62
Q

Why are they called monoclonal antibodies?

A

Because they all come from a single hybridoma clone.

63
Q

How can gonorrhoea be controlled?

A

Can be controlled through use of antibiotics.

64
Q

What are the symptoms of malaria?

A

Symptoms include fever and shaking, can be fatal.

65
Q

What are the effects of rose black spots on plants?

A

Reduces area of the leaf that can photosynthesise. Cause leaf to turn yellow and drop prematurely.

66
Q

What are the effects of TMV on a plant?

A

Affected areas cannot photosynthesise.

67
Q

How do farmers avoid TMV infection in their plants?

A

Farmers grow TMV resistant crop strain to avoid infection.

68
Q

What are protists?

A

Protists are a group of microorganisms that have features that belong to animals, plants and fungi.

69
Q

What does efficacy mean?

A

The ability to produce a desire or intended result.

70
Q

What does toxicity mean?

A

Safety.

71
Q

How do antibiotics work?

A

They damage the bacterial cells by inhibiting their cellular processes, but do not damage the host cells.

72
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies not as widely used as they were suspected to be?

A

They are expensive to be cultured. Side effects - can result in organ failure (a human trial went wrong).

73
Q

What are the advantages of mechanical valves over biological valves?

A

Longer-lasting.
Lower percentage of deaths due to heart related problems.

74
Q

What are the disadvantages of mechanical valves? (3)

A

Blood clots on the brain are more likely.
Patient has to take anti-blood clotting medication.
If medication not taken correctly it leads to clots on the brain and heart attacks.

75
Q

What is an advantage of biological valves over mechanical valves?

A

No additional medication required (blood isn’t as likely to clot).

76
Q

What are the disadvantages of biological valves?

A

Ethical issue.
More likely to be rejected.
More likely to need another new valve.

77
Q

What type of defence response are thorns?

A

Physical

78
Q

How do thorns defend the plant?

A

They scare of insects/animals that might want to eat them.

79
Q

What kind of defence response are poisonous berries?

A

Chemical

80
Q

What factors affect disease?

A

Smoking habits, ethnicity, obesity level, diet, existing medical conditions.

81
Q

How does an increased phagocytosis help the patient?

A

More pathogens will be engulfed by white blood cells.
Less damage to cells.

82
Q

Why are human lymphocytes more effective than animal lymphocytes when making mAbs?

A

Less chance of being rejected by the human body.

83
Q

What is a protist?

A

A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus.

84
Q

Is a virus a prokaryote or eukaryote?

A

Viruses are neither prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Viruses are not made of cells.

85
Q

How do antibiotics work?

A

They kill the bacteria and stop it from spreading.

86
Q

How does a monoclonal antibody treat cancer?

A

Monoclonal antibody attached to radioactive substance.
It will only attach to cancer cells.
Once it binds it will stop them from dividing.

87
Q

Vaccination can be used to prevent an illness in a person.
Explain how a vaccination can prevent an illness. (4)

A

Indicative content
* dead / inactive pathogen
* introduced to the body
* white blood cells respond
* produce antibodies
* antibodies are specific to pathogen
* antibodies produced quickly (on reinfection) / rapid response
* in larger quantities
* killing the pathogen

88
Q

Explain how animals defend themselves against microorganisms.

A
  • skin sebum / oils to kill microbes dead layer difficult to penetrate
  • nose hairs keep out dust and microbes
  • trachea / bronchi mucus traps microbes
  • cilia moves mucus
  • stomach (hydrochloric) acid kills bacteria
  • white blood cells produces antibodies, produces antitoxins, engulf microbes / phagocytosis
89
Q

Explain how plants defend themselves against microorganisms.

A

cell wall - tough / difficult to penetrate
waxy cuticle - tough / difficult to penetrate
dead cells / bark - fall off, taking pathogens with them
production of antibacterial chemicals - kill bacteria

Biology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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