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B3 Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the different ways pathogens can be spread

A

Water
Air
Direct contact

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2
Q

How can pathogens be spread by water

A

You can pick up the pathogens by consuming or bathing in dirty water
You can spread the pathogens by drinking contaminated water

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3
Q

How can pathogens be spread by air

A

Pathogens can be carried by the air in droplets when you cough and sneeze and they can be breathed in

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4
Q

How can pathogens be spread by direct contact

A

Can be picked up and spread by touching contaminated surfaces (including skin)

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5
Q

Examples of viral diseases

A

Measles
HIV

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6
Q

what is measles

A

what: a viral disease spread by droplets of an infected persons cough or sneeze
issues: if there are complications, can be serious
symptoms: red skin rash, fever
treat: vaccinations against virus usually done at youth

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7
Q

What is HIV

A

what: virus spread by sexual contact or by exchanging bodily fluids
issues: attacks immune cells, if badly damaged then body can’t fight other infections (aids/late stage)
symptoms: initial symptoms are flu like
treat: can be controlled with antiretroviral drugs to stop virus from replicating

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8
Q

Examples of bacterial diseases

A

Salmonella
Gonorrhoea

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9
Q

What is salmonella

A

what: type of bacteria causing food poisoning
issues: food poisoning if contaminated food is consumed
symptoms: fever, stomach cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea
treat: most poultry is given vaccinations to control spread of disease

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10
Q

what is gonorrhoea

A

what: sexually transmitted disease
Issue: originally treated with penicillin but it’s more difficult due to antibiotic restraint
symptoms: pain while urinating, thick yellow or green discharge
treat: use condoms to prevent spread, use antibiotics to treat

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11
Q

give an example of a protist disease

A

Malaria

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12
Q

What is malaria

A

what: disease of which mosquitoes are the vector by feeding on infected animals and passing on
issue: can be fatal
symptoms: repeating fevers
treat: stopping mosquitoes breeding to prevent spread,use insecticides and mosquito repellent

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13
Q

how is the skin a defence system

A
  • forms a protective, outer layer of skin on the body which consists of dead cells and is difficult for pathogens to penetrate through
  • secretes antimicrobial substances as well as sebum which can kill bacteria
  • scabs form over wounds to prevent pathogens from entering the body
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14
Q

how does the stomach act as a defence system

A
  • contains hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens before they can make it further down into the digestive system
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15
Q

How is the nose a defence system

A
  • contains hairs and mucus which trap particles that could contain pathogens
  • this prevents the pathogens from entering the breathing system
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16
Q

How is the trachea and bronchi a defence system

A
  • secrete mucus to trap pathogens
  • contain cilia which waft the mucus up to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed
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17
Q

How does the immune system act as a defence system

A
  • destroys pathogens and any toxins the produce
  • protects us in case the same type of pathogen invaded us again in future
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18
Q

explain phagocytosis

A
  • once the phagocyte (wbc) detects a foreign cell, it engulfs the pathogen
  • it then uses enzymes to digest and destroy the cell
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19
Q

Explain the line of attack when antibodies are produced

A
  • Once in contact with forge in cells, Lymphocytes (wbc) produce y-shaped proteins called antibodies which bind to invading cells so that they can be destroyed
  • the antibodies are specific and will only bind to its specific antigen
  • they are rapidly produced once made and are carried around the body
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20
Q

What are memory lymphocytes

A
  • produce the same antibodies of an infection we have previously had in case we catch it again.
  • the antibodies will be produced rapidly and so the person will naturally become immune to the pathogen
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21
Q

Explain the line of attack whe antitoxins are produced

A
  • white blood cells produce antitoxins which stick te toxins molecules produced by invading cells and prevent them from damaging cells
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22
Q

What is the tobacco mosaic virus

A

what - virus that affects many species of plants
issue - discolouration means plants can’t carry out photosynthesis as well and leads to stunt growth
symptoms - causes mosaic pattern on leaves and discolouration

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23
Q

What is rose black spot disease

A

what - fungal disease that affects plants
issue - causes rate of photosynthesis to fall which then reduces rate of growth
Symptoms - development of black or purple spots on leaves
treat - spray plant with chemicals which can kill fungi or/and remove infected leaves and destroy them.

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24
Q

what is the process of vaccination

A
  • inactive forms of a pathogen which carry antigens are injected into your body causing it to produce antibodies to attack them
  • the wbc undergoes mitosis and multiplies to produce more antibodies
  • if a live pathogens of the same type enter the body, wbcs can rapidly produce the antibodies needed to kill the pathogen which prevents infection
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25
Q

what are the pros of vaccinations

A
  1. Helps control many communicable diseases
  2. Epidemics can be prevented if a large percent of population is vaccinated
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26
Q

What is herd community

A

where that is most people are vaccinated, the unvaccinated are unlikely to catch the disease as there are fewer people to catch it from

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27
Q

What are the cons of vaccination

A
  1. Don’t always work
  2. Bad reactions to vaccines can happen
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28
Q

What was the first antibiotic discovered

A

Penicillin

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29
Q

what are antibiotics

A

drug that kills infective bacteria inside the body without harming cells

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30
Q

What is antibiotic resistance

A

where bacteria mutate leading to them becoming resistant to antibiotics
when treated only the non-resistant bacteria will be killed however the surviving restraint can reproduce and the population of the restraint will increase

31
Q

What are painkillers

A

drugs that relieve pain
can on,y reduce symptoms

32
Q

why is it difficult to develop drugs to kill viruses

A

viruses live and reproduce inside human body cells so it’s difficult to kill the viruses without also damaging body cells and tissues

33
Q

What is aspirin and where did it develop from

A

A painkiller that lowers fever
developed from the willow tree

34
Q

What is digitalis and where did it develop from

A

Used to treat heart conditions
Developed fromnfoxglove plant

35
Q

What is penicillin and where did it develop from

A

Antibiotic
Originated from penicillin fungus

36
Q

What is the pre-clinical process of drug testing

A

stage 1: testing drug on cells and tissue for toxicity and efficacy
stage 2: testing on small mammals for toxicity and efficacy

37
Q

Why does we test the drug on small mammals

A

They have a similar organ system to humans

38
Q

What is the clinical process of drug testing (stage 3)

A

Phase 1: very low dosage of drug given to healthy volunteers to see if it’s safe for humans
Phase 2: drug tested on a small group of patients to find optimal dosage
Phase 3: drug tested on a large group of patients

39
Q

What is the optimal dosage

A

Best dose with minimal side effects

40
Q

What is the post-clinical process of drug testing

A

Stage 4: drug is not published until they have been through data analysis and peer review

41
Q

What is peer review

A

When other scientists check that the work is valid to prevent false claims

42
Q

What are placebos

A

Fake version of the real drug which is ineffective

43
Q

How do we use placebos to test drugs

A
  1. Patients are randomly put into two groups
  2. One group is given the new drug whilst the other is given a placebo without knowing who received what
  3. This is done so that the doctor can see the actual difference of the drug
44
Q

What is the placebo effect

A

When the patient expects the treatment to work so they feel better

45
Q

What is the double blind trial

A

When both the doctor and the patients don’t know who is receiving the drug and who is receiving the placebo

46
Q

Why is the double blind trial done

A

To prevent any bias towards the patients or the symptoms and change

47
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produced

A
  1. A mouse is injected with a specific antigen which causes the lymphocytes to produce antibodies against the antigens
  2. The lymphocytes are then collected from the mouse
    3.the lymphocytes are then fused with tumour cells to produce a hybridoma cell
  3. Now a single clone of hybridoma cells can be extracted to allow to rapidly divide by mitosis
    The antibodies produced from the hybridoma cells are identical which are called monoclonal antibodies
  4. A large amount of these monoclonal antibodies can then be collected and purified
48
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies

A

They are produced from a single clone of antibodies
Meaning they are specific to one binding site on one antigen which is beneficial as they can target a specific chemical or cell in the body, giving them a number of uses

49
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests

A

Used to detect a specific hormone which is called hcg which is produced by the placenta of developing fetus and is only present in the urine of pregnant women

50
Q

How do pregnancy tests work if the woman is pregnant

A
  1. The part of the stick of which the urine goes has some antibodies to hcg with blue beads attached
  2. The test strip has some more antibodies stuck onto it
  3. If you are pregnant
    - the hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads
    - the urine moves up the stick, carrying the hormone and the beads
    - the beads and the hormone bind to the antibodies on the strip so the blue beads get stuck on the strip, turning it blue
51
Q

How do pregnancy tests work if the woman is not pregnant

A
  1. The part of the stick of which the urine goes has some antibodies to hcg with blue beads attached
  2. The test strip has some more antibodies stuck onto it
  3. If you aren’t pregnant
    - the urine will still move up the stick, carrying the fluorescent dye
    - however there is nothing to stick to the fluorescent dye onto the test strip so it does not go blue
52
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in the lab

A
  • can be used to bind hormones and other chemicals in blood to measure their levels
  • can be used to test blood samples for certain pathogens
  • to locate specific molecules on a cell or in a tissue
53
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in the lab

A
  • can be used to bind to hormones or other chemicals in blood to measure their levels
  • can also be used to test blood samples for certain pathogens
  • can be used to locate specific molecules on a cell or in a tissue
54
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used for location

A
  1. First the specific monoclonal antibodies are made that will bind to the specific molecule needed
  2. The antibodies are then bound to fluorescent due
  3. If the molecules needed are presented in the sample then monoclonal antibodies will attach to them and they can be detected using the dye
55
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used to treat disease

A
  1. An anti cancer drug can be attached to the monoclonal antibodies
  2. The antibodies are given to the patient through a drip
  3. The antibodies target the specific cancer cells because they only bind to tumour markers
  4. The drug kills the cancer cells but doesn’t kill any normal body cells near the tumour
56
Q

What are tumour markers

A

Antigens that are on the cell membrane of cancer cells but aren’t found on any other cells

57
Q

What is an anti cancer drug

A

A radioactive substance, toxic drug or chemical that stops cancer cells from growing and dividing

58
Q

What are the problems with using monoclonal antibodies

A

They cause more side effects that originally expected eg. Fever vomiting and low blood pressure

59
Q

what are the common signs that a plant has a disease

A
  1. Stunned growth
  2. Spots on leaves
  3. Patches of decay
  4. Abnormal growth
  5. Malformed stems or leaves
  6. Discolouration
60
Q

What are different ways you can identify the signs of a disease

A
  1. Using a gardening manual or website
  2. Taking infected plant to a laboratory
  3. Using testing kits to identify the pathogen using monoclonal antibodies
61
Q

What does a nitrate deficiency cause in plants

A

Nitrates are needed to make proteins and therefore growth so a lack of nitrate causes stunned growth

62
Q

What does a magnesium deficiency cause for plants

A

Magnesium ions are needed to make chlorophyll which is needed for photosynthesis.
A lack of magnesium means the plant will suffer from chlorosis and have yellow leaves

63
Q

What are some physical defences of plants

A
  • waxy cuticle
  • cell wall
  • bark
64
Q

How is the waxy cuticle a physical barrier

A

The waxy cuticle provides a barrier to stop pathogens from entering

65
Q

How are cell walls a physical barrier

A

Cell walls are made from cellulose and act as a physical barrier to the pathogen that pass through the waxy cuticle

66
Q

How is bark a physical barrier

A

Like bark, plants have layers of dead cell around their stem which acts as a barrier, preventing pathogens from entering.

67
Q

What are some examples of chemical defences for plants

A
  • antibacterial chemicals
  • production of poison
68
Q

How are antibacterial chemicals a chemical defence

A

The antibacterial chemicals kill bacteria

69
Q

How is production of poisons a chemical defence

A

Poisons can deter herbivores

70
Q

What are some examples of mechanical defences for plants

A
  • thorns and hairs
  • drooping/curling
  • mimicry
71
Q

How are thorns and hair a mechanical defence

A

They stop animals from touching and eating them

72
Q

How is drooping/curling a mechanical defence

A

by drooping/curling when something touches them, they can prevent themselves from being eaten by knocking insects off themselves and moving away from things

73
Q

How is mimicry a mechanical defence

A

Mimicry prevents other organisms from laying eggs, eating, or coming close to the plant.

biology (5 decks)

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