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B2b Flashcards

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0
Q

What elements are proteins made up of?

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

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1
Q

Where do humans get protein from?

A

Food.

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2
Q

Proteins

A

Proteins are large molecules called macromolecules.

They are made up of a long chain of different amino acids. These amino acids are held together by chemical bonds.

Some proteins form minute fibres that have very long chains of amino acids, and a different shape as the amino acids go in different orders.

The depression on a protein structure is called a binding site, this is so other molecules can fit into the protein.

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3
Q

Binding site

A

The depression on a protein structure that allows other molecules to fit into the protein.

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4
Q

What percentage of the human body is protein? What percentage is water?

A

The human body is 72% water, and 20% protein.

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5
Q

What are the roles of protein in the body?

A

1) Structural components e.g. Muscle tissue.
2) Hormones e.g. Insulin
3) Antibodies
4) Biological catalysts e.g. Enzymes

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6
Q

Catalyst

A

Chemicals that speed up the rate of reactions, but are neither the reactants, nor the products.

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7
Q

Enzymes

A

Enzymes are biological catalysts.

They are proteins.

They catalyse processes such as respiration, growth, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis.

Every enzyme has a unique shape. They usually only catalysed one reaction as the shapes of the enzyme, and the substrate’s active site must fit.

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8
Q

Substrate

A

The thing that the enzyme reacts with.

This is specific to the enzyme.

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9
Q

What are enzymes affected by?

A

• Temperature:
As the temp increases, the rate of reaction increases until the enzymes reach their optimum temp. After that, the bonds break, and the enzymes is denatured (it’s shape is destroyed).

• pH level:
All enzymes have an optimum pH.
After that pH is passed it interferes with the bond, and denatures the enzyme.

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10
Q

Enzymes, and their roles in digestion

A 
• Amylase/Carbohydrase:
Substrate: starch
Products: Glucose & sugars
Used by: Mouth, and small intestine.
Produced by: Mouth, pancreas, and small intestine
•Lipase:
Substrate: fat
Products: Fatty acids, and glycerol
Used by: Small intestine
Produced by: Pancreas, and small intestine
• Protease:
Substrate: protein
Products: amino acids
Used by: small intestine, and stomach 
Produced by: pancreas, small intestine, and stomach.
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11
Q

Digestive system: mouth

A

Mechanical digestion occurs here (teeth chew food, and mix it with saliva)

There are amylase enzymes in the saliva. Amylase breaks down the starch to produce glucose, and sugars.

Amylase couldn’t go into the stomach as the pH in the stomach is too strong, and it would be denatured.

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12
Q

Digestive system: oesophagus

A

It connects the mouth to the stomach, and passes food along by contracting the muscular wall. This is called peristalsis.

There are no enzymes present as no actual digestion occurs.

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13
Q

Peristalsis

A

The process whereby the oesophagus’ muscle wall contract to pass food from the mouth to the stomach.

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14
Q

Digestive system: stomach

A

Food is churned here.

Protease is present to break down the proteins in the food into amino acids.

The acid does not damage our stomach lining as it provides the optimum pH for enzymes to function at.

The stomach DOES NOT digest food.

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15
Q

Digestive system: Liver

A

The liver produces an alkaline substance called bile that is then stored in the gall bladder.

No enzymes are present.

Bile does two things:
1) Neutralises the stomach’s contents before it reaches the small intestine (to get optimum pH).

2) Emulsifies (breaks down) fats into small droplets to increase their surface area, and therefore the enzyme’s rate.

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16
Q

Digestive system:

Pancreas

A

Produces, and releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine via the pancreas duct.

It produces protease (for protein), lipase (for fats), and amylase/Carbohydrase (for starch).

17
Q

Digestive system: Small intestine

A

The digestion of food is completed here, followed by the absorption of small soluble molecules (the goal of digestion) into the bloodstream.

The small intestine has protease, lipase, and amylase enzymes present that were released from the pancreas.

The small intestine has a folded surface (villi). This increases the surface area, and therefore the absorption.

18
Q

Digestive system: Large intestine

A

This is where water is reabsorbed by the small intestine’s waste.

There are no enzymes present as digestion is complete.

19
Q

Digestive system: Rectum

A

This stores faeces until it leaves the body via the anus.

20
Q

Where is digestion completed?

A

Small intestine.

21
Q

What is the goal of digestion?

A

The absorption of small soluble molecules into the bloodstream.

22
Q

Where is amylase produced?

A

Mouth, pancreas, and small intestine.

23
Q

Where is amylase used?

A

Mouth, and small intestine.

24
Q

Where is lipase produced?

A

Pancreas, and small intestine.

25
Q

Where is lipase used?

A

Small intestine.

26
Q

Where is protease produced?

A

Pancreas, small intestine, and stomach.

27
Q

Where is protease used?

A

Small intestine, and stomach.

28
Q

What do you use to test for starch?

A

Iodine.

If it stays brown: no
If it goes blue: yes

29
Q

What do you use to test for glucose?

A

Benedicts.

If it stays blue: no
If is goes greeny yellow: yes

30
Q

What enzymes are mainly used in detergents?

A

Mainly protease, and lipase as they are effective at removing stains of plant, and animal matter e.g. Blood, food

They are more effective at low temperatures (30 degrees) than other detergents.

31
Q

How can enzymes be used to change foods?

A
  • Proteases pre-digest the proteins in baby foods so the baby can digest easier.
  • Amylase/Carbohydrase can be used to turn starch into sugar syrup.
  • Isomerase enzymes can be used to turn glucose syrup into fructose syrup. Since fructose is sweeter you can use less of it, and get the same taste. This is good for slimming products.
32
Q

Advantages, and disadvantages of enzymes

A

+ ives:
• They are specific (only catalyse what you want)
• They don’t need high temp, and pressure -> lowers cost, and saves energy
• Work for a long time
• Biodegradable: less environmental pollution

  • ives:
    • Allergies e.g. To washing powders
    • Can be denatured by a slight change in temperature
    • Can be expensive to produce
    • If the enzyme is contaminated by other substances it can affect the reaction
33
Q

Respiration

A

Chemical reaction that takes place in all cells.

34
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Involves oxygen

Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

  • Glucose (from food), and oxygen (from lungs) are necessary. They are transported to every cell via the circulatory system/bloodstream.
  • Occurs in the mitochondria of the cell.
  • The CO2, and H2O go back into the bloodstream, and are breathed out.
  • Controlled by enzymes.
  • Happens continuously in plants, and animals.
  • Energy is released NOT MADE.
35
Q

How can energy be used in the body?

A

• Muscle contraction (movement)
• Growth
• Building larger molecules out of smaller molecules e.g.
- Proteins from amino acids
- Glycogen (energy reserve in muscles, and liver) from glucose
• Releasing heat
• Maintaining body temp (warm blooded only)

36
Q

Give two examples of cells with lots of mitochondria in them

A

1) Sperm cells:
Needs lots of energy to move quickly towards the egg.

2) Muscle cells:
Need lots of energy as they are constantly contracting.

37
Q

The effect of exercise on the body

A

Your body needs energy all of the time. During exercise the demand for energy increases as your muscles will be working harder, and faster.

  • Your heart beat, breathing rate, and depth of breathing increase.
  • This means that the lungs take in more oxygen which can be picked up by RBC. It also means that the carbon dioxide can be removed.
  • The increase in heart rate increased blood flow to the working muscles. This increases the supply of oxygen, and glucose, and removed CO2 quicker. The blood vessels also dilate to increase blood flow.
  • If glucose is in short supply then glycogen (energy reserve in muscles, and liver) can be broken down to provide glucose for respiration.
38
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Without oxygen

Glucose -> Lactic acid + Energy

Happens when you do vigorous exercise, and you body can’t supply enough oxygen to your muscles.

• Lactic acid builds up the in muscles which is bad as:

  • It is painful
  • It stops them contracting efficiently
  • It causes muscle fatigue
  • It is less efficient than aerobic respiration, but it is useful in emergencies.
  • It causes oxygen debt (see card)
39
Q

Oxygen debt

A

Happens after anaerobic respiration

Lactic acid + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water

  • You need to repay the oxygen in order to oxidise, and remove the lactic acid into CO2, and water.
  • This means that you breath harder for longer to get more oxygen to your muscles.
  • The CO2, and H2O are removed via the bloodstream, and are breathed out.
  • While high levels of CO2, and lactic acid are detected in the blood by the brain, your heart rate, and breathing rate stay high to try to rectify the oxygen debt.
  • The time it takes for you to repay you oxygen debt is called your recovery time.
  • The more unfit you are, the more lactic acid you create, the more oxygen is needed to oxidise it; the longer, and deeper you breathe for.
40
Q

Anaerobic respiration in plants, and yeast

A

Used in the brewing industry

Glucose -> Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

41
Q

Mitosis

A

All body cells undergo mitosis (cloning). It is a form of asexual reproduction.

(See diagram)

1) Parent cell has 4 chromosomes.
2) The DNA is replicated (double the DNA, but still only 4 chromosomes)
3) The copied chromosomes line up in a single line
4) Chromosomes split into two daughter cells that are clones of the parent cell. They each have 4 chromosomes.

  • This can happen exponentially (a daughter cell can split into two more daughter cells)
  • Once the cell splits it no longer exists
  • Cells do this for growth, and repair

Biology (2 decks)

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