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Biology - Mocks > B2 - Organisation > Flashcards

B2 - Organisation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of similar cells working together to perform a particular function

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2
Q

What is an organ?

A

A group of different tissues working together to perform a particular function

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3
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs with related functions working together to perform a specific function

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4
Q

What is the stomach made up of?

A
  • Muscle = Contracts to churn
  • Glandular tissue = Made from cells that secrete chemicals such as enzymes and hormones
  • Epithelial tissue = Covers the inside and outside parts of the body
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5
Q

Journey food takes?

A

Mouth - Oesophagus - Stomach - Small intestine - Large intestine - Rectum - Anus

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6
Q

Complimentary organs or the digestive system?

A

Salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas

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7
Q

Function of mouth?

A
  • Mechanical digestion - teeth break down food into smaller pieces to increase SA to volume ratio
  • Amylase in saliva starts digesting starch to maltose
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8
Q

Function of the oesophagus?

A
  • Connects mouth to stomach

- Contracts to push food down

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9
Q

Function of stomach?

A
  • Mechanical digestion by churning
  • Protease enzymes start to digest proteins
  • HCL kills bacteria and gives optimal pH for protease enzymes
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10
Q

Function of small intestine?

A

Absorption of nutrients and digested food molecules

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11
Q

Function of large intestine?

A

Water absorption

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12
Q

Function of pancreas?

A
  • Produces amylase, lipase and protease

- Secretes enzymes into small intestine to raise Ph of fluid coming out of the stomach

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13
Q

Function of liver?

A
  • Produces bile to emulsify fats
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14
Q

Function of gall bladder?

A

Stores bile to release into small intestine as needed

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15
Q

Role of bacteria in digestion?

A
  • Breaking down substances we can’t digest
  • Supplying essential nutrients
  • Synthesising vitamin K
  • Providing competition with harmful bacteria to restrict their growth
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16
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Biological catalysts made from protein

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17
Q

Why are enzymes specific 3D shapes?

A

They are formed from protein molecules

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18
Q

How does the lock and key model work?

A
  1. Enzymes and substrates move about in a solution
  2. When an enzyme and it’s complimentary substrate collide, an enzyme-substrate complex forms and the reaction occurs
  3. A product/products are formed which are released form the active site
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19
Q

What happens to the enzyme after it has been used?

A

It is unchanged and catalyse further reactions

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20
Q

What is the induced-fit model?

A

When the substrate and active site change shape slightly to fit more perfectly when they bind

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21
Q

Optimal enzyme temperature in humans?

A

Around 37 degrees

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22
Q

What is denaturation?

A

High temperatures will start to break the bonds that hold the enzyme together and it will start to lose its shape. Eventually the active site is lost completely and the substrate cannot bind

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23
Q

Why does increasing temperature up to a point increase enzyme activity?

A

The molecules have more energy so move faster and the number of collision with substrate molecules increases

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24
Q

What happens at low temperatures?

A

Denaturation does not occur but there is less kinetic energy so the substrates collide at a lower rate

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25
Q

What is the best pH for enzymes?

A

Mostly 7 but some are produced in acidic conditions which have a lower optimum pH (stomach) and some that have higher (small intestine)

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26
Q

What can cause denaturation?

A

Wrong pH or too high temperatures

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27
Q

What is the purpose of digestion?

A

To break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream

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28
Q

What are three types of digestive enzymes?

A

Carbohydrases, proteases and lipases

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29
Q

What do carbohydrases do?

A

Break down carbohydrates into simple sugars

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30
Q

What does amylase do?

A

A carbohydrase which breaks starch into maltose

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31
Q

Where is amylase made?

A

Salivary glands, pancreas, small intestine

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32
Q

What do proteases do?

A

Break down proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine

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33
Q

Where is protease made?

A

Stomach (pepsin), pancreas and small intestine

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34
Q

What do lipases do?

A

Break down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

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35
Q

Where is lipase made?

A

Pancreas

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36
Q

Where is lipase secreted?

A

Small intestine (Duodenum)

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37
Q

Roles of bile?

A
  • Neutralise HCl from the stomach because the enzymes in the small intestine have a higher optimum pH
  • Emulsifies fats
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38
Q

What is glucose used for in humans?

A

Some that is released from carbohydrate breakdown is used in respiration to release energy

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39
Q

What are amino acids used for in humans?

A

To build proteins such as enzymes and antibodies

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40
Q

What are the products of lipid digestion used for?

A

To build new cell membranes and hormones

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41
Q

How have the lungs adapted for gas exchange?

A
  • Large surface area for faster diffusion
  • Thin walls for a short diffusion pathway
  • Good ventilation for concentration gradients
  • Good blood supply for concentration gradients
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42
Q

Structures of the lungs?

A

Nasal cavity, trachea, pleural cavity, lung, bronchus, bronchiole, alveoli, intercostal muscle, ribs, diaphragm

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43
Q

Function of the rib?

A
  • Bone structures to surround and protect lungs

- Aid breathing

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44
Q

Function of the intercostal muscles?

A

Muscles between ribs which control movement, causing inhalation and exhalation

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45
Q

Function of the diaphragm?

A

Sheet of connective tissue and muscle at the bottom of the thorax that helps change the volume of the thorax

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46
Q

Function of the trachea?

A
  • Windpipe that connects the mouth and nose to the lungs

- Lined with ciliated epithelial cells (to move mucus up to the mouth)

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47
Q

Function of the bronchi?

A

Tubes branching off the trachea with one for each lung

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48
Q

Function of the bronchioles?

A

Bronchi split to form smaller tubes called bronchioles that connect to the alveoli

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49
Q

Function of alveoli?

A

Tiny moist air sacs where gas exchange takes place that are covered in capillaries

50
Q

What happens when you breathe in?

A
  • External intercostal muscles contract
  • Rib cage moves up and out
  • Diaphragm contracts and flattens
  • Volume of thorax increases
  • Pressure inside thorax decreases
  • Air is drawn in
51
Q

What happens when you breathe out?

A
  • External intercostal muscles relax
  • Rib cage moves down and in
  • Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome shaped
  • Volume of thorax decreases
  • Pressure inside thorax increases
  • Air is forced out
52
Q

What does the right side of the heart do?

A

Brings blood from the body and takes to the lungs

53
Q

What does the left side of the heart do?

A

Brings blood from the lungs and takes to body

54
Q

Benefits of a double circulatory system?

A
  • Blood travelling through small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of pressure which reduces the speed it flows
  • Returning oxygenated blood to the heart, pressure can be raised before sending to the body so cells can be supplied more quickly
55
Q

Order of blood through the heart?

A

Body - Vena cava - Right atrium - Right ventricle - Pulmonary artery - Lungs - Pulmonary vein - Left atrium - Left ventricle - Aorta - Body

56
Q

How have the ventricles adapted?

A

They have thicker walls so they can pump with pressure

57
Q

Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker?

A

It has to pump the blood to the rest of the body

58
Q

What are the two types of valves in the heart?

A

Atrioventricular valves - separate the atria from the ventricles
Semilunar valves - found in the two arteries that come out the top of the heart

59
Q

What separates the two sides of the heart?

A

Septum (atrial septum and ventricular septum)

60
Q

What is the heart made of?

A

Cardiac muscle which does not fatigue like skeletal muscle

61
Q

What do the coronary arteries do?

A

Supply the tissue of the heart wit oxygenated blood - the heart needs a supply of oxygen and glucose for energy

62
Q

What are where is the pacemaker?

A

A group of cells that control the natural resting heart rate in the right atrium

63
Q

What does the pacemaker do?

A

Sends an electrical impulse causing the cardiac muscles to contract which it does everytime it needs to beat

64
Q

What happens if the pacemaker stops functioning properly?

A

An artificial pacemaker may need to be implanted to correct irregularities in heart rate. Implanted just under the skin and delivers an electrical current to the heart with a wire

65
Q

Three types of blood vessels?

A
  • Veins
  • Arteries
  • Capillaries
66
Q

Order of blood vessels?

A

Arteries -> Capillaries -> Veins

67
Q

Features of arteries?

A
  • Thick wall with layers of collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres
  • Elastic fibres allow the artery wall to expand around surging blood at high pressure
  • Narrow lumen maintains high blood pressure
68
Q

Features of veins?

A
  • Thin wall with thinner layers of collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres
  • Larger lumen than arteries
  • Valves to prevent backflow of blood
69
Q

Features of capillaries?

A
  • 1 cell thick wall to reduce diffusion distance

- Cells of the wall have pores to allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid

70
Q

Features of red blood cells?

A
  • Biconcave disc shape for large surface area to volume ratio
  • No nucleus
  • Cytoplasm is packed with haemoglobin which binds to oxygen
71
Q

Role of white blood cells?

A

Recognising and destroying pathogens

72
Q

Three ways that white blood cells defend the body?

A
  • Phagocytes
  • Lymphocytes producing antibodies
  • Lymphocytes producing antitoxins
73
Q

What do phagocytes do?

A

Engulf and digest pathogens to destroy them

74
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A
  • Produce specific antibodies that enhance phagocyte activity by disabling pathogens
  • Producing antitoxins which bind to toxic substances produced by pathogens to neutralise them
75
Q

Adaptations of white blood cells?

A
  • Phagocytes have a lobed nucleus and are autonomous

- Lymphocytes have a large nucleus and can produce antibodies very quickly

76
Q

What are platelets?

A

Fragments of cells that have cytoplasm but no nucleus

77
Q

What is the role of platelets?

A
  • Forming blood clots at a wound to prevent blood loss

- Insufficient platelets cannot clot blood effectively which can be life threatening

78
Q

Cause of CHD?

A

A build up of fatty material inside the coronary arteries

79
Q

What is the fatty material in CHD made of?

A
  • Dietary cholesterol

- Cholesterol synthesised by the liver

80
Q

Why is it bad for the coronary arteries to be blocked?

A

Arteries lose elasticity and cannot stretch to accommodate blood

81
Q

What does a partial blockage cause?

A

Restricted blood flow to the cardiac muscle cells that results in angina

82
Q

What does a complete blockage cause?

A

Cells of the heart cannot respire aerobically so results in a heart attack

83
Q

Possible treatments of CHD?

A

Stents or statins

84
Q

How do stents work?

A
  • A narrow tube is threaded up through the groin to the blocked vessel
  • A tiny balloon is inflated
  • The balloon pushes the stent against the artery wall, widening the lumen
  • The balloon and tube are removed
85
Q

Advantages of stents?

A
  • Very effective to increase blood flow
  • Simple procedure
  • Long lasting
86
Q

Disadvantages of stents?

A
  • Risk of thrombosis (clots)
87
Q

What are statins?

A

Drugs that reduce the levels of cholesterol in the blood by blocking an enzyme in the liver needed to make cholesterol

88
Q

Advantages of statins?

A
  • Reduces the risk of plaque building up so lowers the risk of CHD, heart attacks and strokes
  • Statins can increase the levels of HDL (good) cholesterol in the blood
89
Q

Disadvantages of statins?

A
  • Must be taken regularly and long term
  • Can take a while to have an effect
  • Can cause side effects such as muscle pains, kidney problems and neurological issues
90
Q

Why might heart valves become faulty?

A
  • Illness
  • Old age
  • Heart attack
91
Q

Why is it bad if valves become stiffer?

A
  • Prevents them fully opening
  • Reduces volume of blood pumped by the heart
  • Could develop a leak which gives backflow of blood
92
Q

Replacements for faulty valves?

A

Pig, cow or mechanical valves

93
Q

What is an artificial heart for?

A

Short term solution to keep the patient alive while waiting for a heart transplant

94
Q

Advantages of artificial hearts?

A
  • Less wait for one to be available

- Less chance of rejection

95
Q

Disadvantages of artifical hearts?

A

Don’t always work as well as real hearts

- Increased risk of blood clots

96
Q

Function of the upper epidermis?

A

Thin and transparent to allow light to enter the layer underneath

97
Q

Function of the palisade mesophyll?

A

Column shaped cells tightly packed with chloroplasts to absorb more light

98
Q

Function of the spongy mesophyll?

A

Contains internal air spaces that increase the surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of gases

99
Q

Function of the lower epidermis?

A

Contains guard cells and stomata

100
Q

Function of the guard cell?

A

Absorbs and loses water to open and close the stomata

101
Q

Function of the stomata?

A

Where gas exchange takes place, opens during the day, closes at night, water evaporation also takes place here

102
Q

Function of the vascular bundle?

A

Contains xylem and phloem to transport substances to and from the leaf

103
Q

Function of the xylem?

A

Transports water into the leaf for mesophyll cells to use in photosynthesis and for transpiration from stomata

104
Q

Function of the phloem?

A

Transports sucrose and amino acids around the plant

105
Q

Order of structure of leaf?

A

Upper epidermis - Palisade mesophyll - Spongy mesophyll - Lower epidermis - Guard cells and Stomata

106
Q

Adaptations of leaves?

A
  • Large surface area
  • Thin
  • Chlorophyll
  • Network of veins
  • Stomata
  • Thin and transparent epidermis
  • Thin waxy cuticle
  • Palisade cell layer at top
  • Spongy layer
  • Vascular bundles
107
Q

Factors that affect transpiration?

A
  • Air movement
  • Humidity
  • Light intensity
  • Temperature
108
Q

How does air movement affect transpiration?

A

Good airflow removes water vapour from the air surrounding the leaf which increases the concentration gradient so increases water loss

109
Q

How does humidity affect transpiration?

A

When the air is full of water vapour, the concentration gradient decreases so decreases water loss

110
Q

How does light intensity affect transpiration?

A

Guard cells are responsive to light intensity, when it is high, they are turgid and the stomata open so more water is lost

111
Q

How does temperature affect transpiration?

A

At higher temperatures, particles have more kinetic energy so transpiration occurs at a faster rate

112
Q

What is the aorta?

A

The main artery that takes oxygenated blood away from the heart and to the body

113
Q

What is an artery?

A

A blood vessel that carries blood at high pressure away from the heart

114
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

An abnormal cell growth that is contained within one area

115
Q

What is blood?

A

A tissue containing red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma

116
Q

What is cancer?

A

A non-communicable disease cause by changes in the cell that lead to uncontrolled growth and division

117
Q

What is a cell?

A

The basic building block or all living organisms

118
Q

What is health?

A

The state of physical and mental wellbeing

119
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

A cancerous cell growth that invades neighbouring tissues and can spread to different parts of the body in the blood

120
Q

What is metabolism?

A

All the chemical reactions occurring in an organism

121
Q

What is translocation?

A

The movement of food molecules through the phloem tissue

122
Q

What is transpiration?

A

The movement of water through the plant via the xylem tubes from root to leaf that includes the evaporation of water out of the plant and osmosis into the plant

Biology - Mocks (4 decks)

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