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B1 (ACTUAL))))) > b1.1-b1.3 > Flashcards

b1.1-b1.3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the five main components of a balanced diet?

A 
Protein
Carbohydrates
Fats
Fibre
Vitamins+Minerals
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2
Q

Describe what the body uses protein from food for

A

Growth

Cell repair + replacement

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3
Q

Describe what the body uses fats for

A

Insulation
Quick release energy
Energy stores

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4
Q

Describe what the body uses carbohydrates from food for

A

Slow release energy

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5
Q

What is the function of having fibre in a balanced diet?

A

Keping digestive system effective

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6
Q

Why are vitamins and minerals an important part of a balanced diet?

A 
Maintain:
Bones
Skin
Blood 
etc.
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7
Q

Define metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions in the body

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8
Q

Define metabolic rate

A

The rate at which all the chemical reactions in the body occur

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9
Q

What factors affect metabolic rate?

A 
Exercise (will speed up)
Proportion of muscle to fat (more m=faster)
Genetic factors (e.g thyroid function)
Climate (colder=slower)
Size (bigger=faster)
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10
Q

Define malnourishment

A

Having an unbalanced diet

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11
Q

What is obesity a result of?

A

Excess in fat or carbohydrates in the diet

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12
Q

What can obesity cause?

A 
Type 2 diabetes
Cancer
Arthritis
High bP
Heart disease
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13
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

Natural occuring fatty substance in the digestive system

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14
Q

What does an abundance of cholesterol increase the risk of?

A

Heart disease

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15
Q

What do statins do?

How?

A

Lower excesses of cholesterol

—>Inhibits enzyme that produces C from working

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16
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of statins?

A

+ Lowers excess cholesterol

  • ->+ Lowers chance of heart disease/ill health
  • Expensive
  • Can be abused
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17
Q

Which factors affect health?

A

Diet
Exercise
Genetics
Environment

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18
Q

Define pathogens

A

Micro=organisms that cause disease

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19
Q

What are the four types of pathogens?

A

Fungi
Parasites
Bacteria
Viruses

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20
Q

What do viruses do when they take over the body?

A

Take over healthy cells
Reproduce within cells until they burst
–>releases more of the virus into the body

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21
Q

What do bacteria do when they cause disease in the body?

A

Produce toxins
–>damage cells
Reproduce rapidly

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22
Q

Define an antigen

A

A marker on the surface of a pathogen that acts as specific identification

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23
Q

Define an antibody

A

Protein produced by lymphocytes to fight pathogens

  • ->Attach to antigens to damage/destroy
  • ->Clump pathogens together to aid phagocytosis
  • ->Bind to pathogens and use chem. signals to attract phagocytes
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24
Q

What are the two types of white blood cells?

A

Phagocytes

Lymphocytes

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25
Q

What are the role of phagocytes?

A

Phagocytosis
-Engulf and digest pathogens
–>Uses enzymes
Chem messages to lymphocytes identifying specific antibodies necessary for antigens

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26
Q

Whats the role of a lymphocyte in fighting pathogens?

A

Produce specific antibodies that attach to antigens and damage pathogens/clump pathogens/messages to phagocytes
Produce antitoxins that neutralise toxins produced by pathogens

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27
Q

What are the barriers against pathogens on the human body?

A

Eyes produce LYSOSYME (enzyme=chem)
Stomach produces HYDROCHLORIC ACID (sterilises chyme= CHEM)
Skin produces SEBUM (kills pathogens but can become food in high conc.s = CHEM)

Skin (physical barrier)
Ear wax traps pathogens (physical)
–>+ Mucus in respiratory tract

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28
Q

How does a vaccination work?

A

Dead/weakened version of pathogen injected
Body produces specific antibodies to fight antigens/pathogen
If the body is reinfected w/ pathogen–> rapid response from body of mass producing specific antibodies
=immunity
–>can wear off over time–> BOOSTER INJECTIONS

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29
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations?

A

PROS
Large scale vaccinations prevents epidemics
Have controlled/eradicated many dangerous infectious diseases

CONS
Won’t always work
Bad reactions to vaccinations

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30
Q

What are the purpose of painkillers?

A

Reduce symptoms

-dont address specific disease

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31
Q

What’s the purpose of antibiotics?

A

Kill bacteria

-Specific to strain

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32
Q

Why is it difficult to develop drugs for viruses?

A

Viruses reproduce using body cells
–>Difficult to fight w/out killing body cells

Takes time to produce anti-virals

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33
Q

What is the process of bacteria resistance?

A

Mutations w/in a pop–> randomly mutate to be resistant to certain antibiotic
Antibiotic treatment: non-resistant will die
Resistant will survive- reproduce- pass on mutated gene (NATURAL SELECTION)
–>Causes infection that can’t be treated w antibiotics

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34
Q

What is an example of bacteria being resistant?

A

MRSA

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35
Q

What can be done to prevent increasingly bacteria resistance?

A

Lowering prescriptions of antibiotics

Finishing course of antibiotics- past symptoms disappearing–>so no bacteria survive

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36
Q

What is the method for investigating antibiotics?

A

Grow cultures of micro-organisms
(in ‘culture medium’–> agar jelly containing glucose+vits/mins
Jelly cooled-micro-os transferred using inoculating loop)

Paper discs soaked in antibiotics placed onto jelly
–>Observe which strains are resistant VS which die

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37
Q

What did Semmelweiss observe in the 1840s?

A

Babies delivered by male students=more likely to die than delivered by nurses

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38
Q

What was Semmelweiss’ hypothesis?

A

Male students examined cadavers

–>particles transferred to uterus of mothers via students’ hands

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39
Q

What was Semmelweiss’ experiment?

A

Ordered male students to wash hands before delivering babies

chlorinated lime

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40
Q

What were Semmelweiss’ findings?

A

DR dropped significantly

BUT

couldn’t prove–>others didn’t adopt

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41
Q

Why did other doctors not adopt Semmelweiss’ method?

A

He couldn’t prove why it worked

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42
Q

What is sterile technique?

A

Sterilise all equipment–> pass through flame (kill unwanted micro-organisms)
Seal petri dishes (avoid contamination)

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43
Q

Define a stimulus

A

Any change to surroudning environment

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44
Q

What is the role of the nervous system?

A

Detect stimulus and react to it

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45
Q

What are receptors?

A

(transducers)

Cells which change one form of energy into another

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46
Q

What are the roles of sense organs?

What do they contain to allow them to do this?

A

Detect simuli

Receptors

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47
Q

What are the 5 main sense organs?

What are they sensitive to?

A 
Skin
touch,pressure,pain,temp change
Nose
chem. stimuli (smell receptors)
Tongue
chem stimuli (taste receptors)
Eyes
light (light receptors)
Ears
sound and change in position (sound and balance receptors)
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48
Q

What is the central nervous system comprised of?

A

Brain and spinal chord

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49
Q

What occurs in the CNS?

A

All info from sense organs sent

–>Co ordinates reflexes and actions

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50
Q

How is information from sense organs sent to and from sense organs?

A

Neurones transmit

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51
Q

What happens after the CNS co ordinates an action?

A

Instruction sent to effectors

–>respond accordingly

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52
Q

What are effectors?

A

Muscles and glands

contract and secrete hormones

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53
Q

What are the three types of neurone?

A

Sensory
Relay
Motor

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54
Q

What do sensory neurones do?

A

Carry electrical impulses from receptors to CNS

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55
Q

What do relay neurones do?

A

Carry electrical impulses from sensory to motor neurones

56
Q

What do motor neurones do?

A

Carry electrical impulses from CNS to effectors

57
Q

What is the PNS

A

Peripheral Nervous System

–>carries impulses from receptors to CNS and from CNS to effectors

58
Q

What is the PNS comprised of?

A

Sensory and motor neurones

59
Q

List the features of a neurone

A 
Nucleus 
Cell body
Axon
Myelin sheath
Nerve ending/ Synoptic knobs
60
Q

What direction is an electrical impulse carried in a neurone?

A

From cell body along axon to synoptic knobs

61
Q

Describe how an electrical impulse travels from a relay neurone to a motor neurone

A

Impulse along axon of relay neurone
Trigger release of neurotransmitter
Diffuse down conc. gradient across synapse
Triggers electrical impulse along motor neurone
–>carries on to send message to effectors

62
Q

Define a reflex

A

An automatic response to stimuli

63
Q

What is the advantage of a reflex arc bypassing the brain

A

Speeds reaction up

in emergency: avoids getting injured

64
Q

What is the reflex arc?

A

Stimulus-Receptor-STORM-Effector-Reaction

65
Q

What does STORM stand for?

A

Sensory neurone TO Relay neurone to motor neurone

66
Q

What does the reflex arc bypass?

A

The brain

67
Q

Define homeostasis

A

How to body maintains a constant internal environment

68
Q

What is are examples of internal conditions that the body needs to keep constant

A

PH levels of blood
Blood glucose concentration
Temperature

69
Q

How does the body maintain homeostasis?

A

Hormones

70
Q

Define a hormone

A

Chemical messengers released from glands into blood plasma that are specific to target cells/organs and activate these by attaching to membrane

71
Q

Give an example of a hormone

A

Adrenaline (from adrenal gland)

Oestrogen (from ovaries)

72
Q

What are the differences between using nerves and hormones?

A 
Nerves
-v fast 
-act for short time
-act on precise area
Hormones
-slower message
-act for long time
-act in a more general way
73
Q

What is the most important gland in the body?

A

Pituitary gland

74
Q

What are the hormones involved in the menstrual cycle?

A

Oestrogen

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Progesterone

75
Q

Where is oestrogen secreted?

What is its effect?

A

Ovaries

Inhibits FSH production
Starts LH production`

76
Q

Where is luteinizing hormone secreted?

What is its effect?

A

Pituitary gland

Stimulates release of an egg

77
Q

Where is follicle stimulating hormone released?

What is the effect of this?

A

Pituitary gland

Causes egg to mature

78
Q

What are the stages of the menstrual cycle?

A

days 1-5
Menstruation
-lining of uterus breaks down

days 5-14
FSH released-causes egg to grow + mature
-lining of uterus builds up again (thick spongy layers full of blood vessels)
=ready to recieve fertilised egg
Follicles secrete oestrogen

14-
LH peak=ovulation (egg released)
Oestrogen secretion stopped

14-21
Progesterone released by empty follicle
Stops LH
LINING THICKENS AND MAINTAINED

28/1-
If egg is not fertilised-> progesterone falls
-spongy layer breaks down
MENSTRUATION (cycle continues)

79
Q

Explain how the oestrogen contraceptive pill works

A

Artificial elevated levels of oestrogen

  • ->Starts LH production
  • ->Inhibits FSH production
  • eggs not able to mature=won’t be released for fertilisation
80
Q

Explain how the progesterone contraceptive pill works

A

Progesterone=stimulates production of thick cervical mucus
–>Prevents sperm entering uterus

LESS SIDE EFFECTS
LESS EFFECTIVE

81
Q

Which type of contraceptive pill is more effective?

A

Oestrogen

82
Q

Which type of contraceptive pill has more side effects?

A

Oestrogen

83
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of contraceptive pills?

A

PROS
over 99% effective
reduces risks of specific cancers

CONS
never 100% effective
side effects
doesn’t protect against STIs

84
Q

How do fertility drugs work?

A 
Inject FSH (=elevated levels)
Causes ovaries to mature eggs
(if LH is healthy) Will be released
85
Q

How does IVF work?

A

Egg collected
Fertilised in a lab using sperm (in vitro)
Grown into embryos
Once a ball of cells –>few transferred into uterus (either mother or surrogate) to develop

86
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of fertility treatments?

A

PROS
Increases chances of pregnancy
IVF- embryos can be screened for unhealthy genetic mutations/disabilities
Replaces invasive fallopian tube surgeries

CONS
Ethical complications
Expensive
Higher complication rate
Increased levels of FSH= more likely to have multiple pregnancies (can stimulate multiple follicles)
87
Q

Define an auxin

A

Plant hormones responsible for plant growth
Stimulates shoots
Retards roots
Moved to shaded area of plant

88
Q

Define a tropsim

A

Any growth response to stimulus

89
Q

Define a geotropism

A

Response to gravity

90
Q

Define a negative tropism

A

Response away from a stimulus

91
Q

Define phototropism

A

Response to light

92
Q

Define a positive tropism

A

Response towards stimulus

93
Q

Define hydrotropism

A

Response to water

94
Q

Define haptotropism

A

Growing around stimulus

95
Q

Explain phototropism of a shoot

A

Auxins accumulate on shaded side if shoot (negative tropism)
Uneven distribution causes increased cell growth (+ cell elongation)
Shoot bends towards light due to uneven length

96
Q

Explain geotropism for shoots and roots

How is this an advantage?

A 
SHOOTS
Auxins accumulate on lower side 
Stimulates growth
Uneven distribution causes longer lower side
-->Bends upwards
(can access more sunlight)
ROOTS
Auxins accumulate on lower side
Retards growth
Uneven distribution causes upper side grow faster
-->Bends downwards due to uneven sides
(deeper in soil=more moisture exposure)
97
Q

What are commercial uses of auxins?

A

Controlling ripening of fruit
–>Balancing hormones during shipping to prevent premature ripening

Killing weeds

  • ->Weeds have diff. growth pattern to crop
  • ->Disrupting normal growth of weeds–>grow so fast they die

Growing plant cuttings
–>rooting powder contains auxins (amplifying/speeding up geotropism)

Seedless fruit
–>Adding to pollinated plants will produce seedless fruit

98
Q

How does the body control ion content?

A

Ions taken in by food-if too much taken in of one kind:excess removed
-Regulated by kidneys–>remove from blood to urine

99
Q

How does the body control blood glucose levels?

A

Glucose from carbohydrates
–>Removed by process of metabolism
Insulin=maintains levels (so cells get constant supply)

100
Q

How does the body control water levels?

A

In:food and drink
Out: Sweat, breath and urine
Balance between sweat and urine depends on external conditions

101
Q

How much will a person produce sweat and urine if they are in cold conditions?

A

Less sweat

More diluted urine

102
Q

How much sweat and urine will a person produce if they are in a hot climate?

A

More sweat

Less diluted urine

103
Q

How does the body control core temperature?

Why does it need to?

A

Area in brain
–>sends messages to skin (sensitive to temp in brain)

Enzymes in the body are most effective at ~37degrees

104
Q

What is the definition of a drug?

A

Chemicals that alter the chemical reactions in the body

105
Q

What are the three types of drugs?

A

Recreational

Performance-enhancing

Medicinal

106
Q

What is the definition of a recreational drug?

A

A chemical that alters the chemical reactions in the body and is used for fun (illegal and legal)

107
Q

What is the definition of a medicinal drug?

A

A chemical that alters the chemical reactions in the body and is useful medically

108
Q

What is the definition of a performance enhancing drug?

A

A chemical that alters the chemical reaction sin the body and improves performance in sport

109
Q

What are two types of performance enhancing drugs?

A

Stimulants

Ananbolic steroids

110
Q

What is a negative health effect of anabolic steriods?

A

Causes high BP

111
Q

What are the ethical pros and cons of performance enhancing drugs?

A

PROS
Athletes have the right to make informed decisions about their bodies if they know the risks
Drug free sport isn’t necessarily fair
(athletes will have access to different levels of facilities)

CONS
Unfair advantage given to athletes outside of training
Athletes may not know what they are taking/understand the risks

112
Q

Define statins

A

Prescribed drugs that are used to lower risk of heart and circulatory disease

113
Q

Why was the original research suggesting the benefits of statins reliable?

A

Run by govt. scientists with no connections to manufactures
Used a large sample
Used control groups
Results were reproducible

114
Q

Define a placebo

A

A fake version of a drug that is used as a control/to measure the effect of patient’s being told they are being treated in a drug test
–>psychosematic effect

115
Q

Define a blind drug test

A

A clinical trial where the patient doesn’t know if they are being administered the active agent being tested or not but the medical professional administering does

116
Q

Define a double blind drug trial

A

A clinical trial where the patient nor the medical professional are aware if the patient is recieving the active agent being tested or not

117
Q

State the 4 stages of drug testing

A

Computer mapping/tested on human cells/tissues
Live animals
Healthy volunteers
Patients

118
Q

Why can not all drugs be tested on human cells/tissues in a alb?

A

If they affect multiple systems in the body simultaneously

-

119
Q

What is the use of testing drugs on live animals?

A

Testing:
If it works
Toxicity
Best dosage

120
Q

What is the law in Britain regarding testing drugs on live animals?

A

Legally have to be tested on 2 diff species of live mammals

121
Q

What are the ethics surrounding testing drugs on animals?

A

PROS
Safest way to determine whether a drug is safe or not

CONS
Cruel

122
Q

What is the use of testing drugs on healthy volunteers?

A

Investigating possible side effects

low dosages–>increased

123
Q

What is the use of testing drugs on real patients?

A

Finding optimum dose

most effective w least amount of side effects

124
Q

How is the effectiveness of a drug tested on real patients?

A

Split into two groups-active agent and placebo

–>Control variable of placebo allows Drs. to identify the drug itself makes

125
Q

Why are some drug trials double blind?

A

So that medical professionals aren’t subconsciously influenced to look for non existent patterns

126
Q

Why are drug trials blind?

A

Allows the use of the placebo effect

127
Q

What was thalidomide originally used as?

A

Sleep medication

128
Q

What was thalidomide later found to be useful for?

A

Relieving morning sickness

129
Q

What was the impact of thalidomide?

A

Passed through placenta to foetus
Stunted limb growth
~10,000 born–>1/2 affected

130
Q

Why was the impact of thalidomide not known?

A

Hadn’t been tested on pregnant animals or patients

131
Q

What is thalidomide now used as treatment for?

A

leprosy

bone cancer

132
Q

How do painkillers work?

A

Inhibits neurones–>blocks transmission

SYMPTOMS NOT CAUSES

133
Q

Why do people take recreational drugs?

A

Pain relief
Fun
Relaxation
Relieving stress

134
Q

Why have some scientists linked cannabis use to further use of hard drugs?

A

Stepping stone
-positive reaction creates desire to try harder drugs

Gate way drug
-gets people in contact with drug dealers

Genetics
-those who are likely to try cannabis are likely to also try harder drugs

135
Q

What are the negative impacts of smoking tobacco?

A

Linked to cardiothorasic diseases
Nicotine=addictive
Carinogenic

136
Q

What are the negative impacts of drinking alcohol?

A

Affects nervous system
–>impaired judgement
Damages brain and liver

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