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Biology 1 > B1 Part A > Flashcards

B1 Part A Flashcards

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1
Q

List the six essential components to/types of food that are essential for a person to be healthy

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Protein
  • Fibre
  • Vitamins and Minerals
  • Fats
  • Water
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2
Q

What is the function of carbohydrates and in which foods are they most commonly assosciated with?

A

A source of energy

Found in potatoes, bread, pasta, starchy foods

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3
Q

Why do we eat protein and in what foods can it be found?

A

Protein is necessary for the growth and repair of cells

It is found in meats, pulses and eggs

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4
Q

Why is water so important to the body?

A

It keeps it hydrated, carries oxygen to all the body’s cells and enables reactions to take place

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5
Q

Why is it so important to eat enough fruit and vegetables? (2)

A

Fruit and veg contain *fibre, *which benefits the digestive system

They also contain plenty of vitamins and minerals that maintain health

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6
Q

What is the function of fats and in which foods are they commonly found?

A

Fats provide an energy store and warmth for the body. They are found in oil and dairy products.

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7
Q

What is the result of protein deficency?

A

Muscle and tissue wasting

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8
Q

What disease can be caused from not consuming enough Vitamin C and was common amongst pirates in the 1700s?

A

Scurvy

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9
Q

What are Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Calcium and Iron found in?

A

Vitamin A: Carrots

Vitamin C: Citrus fruits

Vitamin D: Sunlight, fish

Calcium: Dairy

Iron: Red meat and green veg

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10
Q

What is the term used for foods that have been intentionally inserted with vitamins and minerals?

A

Fortified (often milk and cereal)

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11
Q

Define metabolic rate and list the factors it is effected by

A

Metabolic rate: The pace of all the chemical reactions in your body

Inherited factors, gender, climate, excersise/muscle

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12
Q

How does excersise help to prevent obesity?

A

People who do excersise burn more energy consumed and therefore decreases the amoutn stores as fat. It builds muscle and therefore helps to boost metabolic rate.

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13
Q

What are the two forms of malnourishment?

A

Obesity and emaciation (lack of food)

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14
Q

When is a person defined as being obese?

A

When they are 20% or more over the recommended body mass for their gender/height/age, often due to an excess of carbohydrates/fat

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15
Q

What must you look for in slimming method claims?

A
  • If it is based on a scientific study
  • If it was written by someone qualified
  • Was the sample size large enough to prove it’s effectiveness
  • Has there been other studieswith similar results?
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16
Q

What medical conditions can be caused by obesity?

A

Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, arthritis

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17
Q

If someone doesn’t eat enough food, what symptoms are they likely to experience?

A

Slow growth, fatigue, poor immunity, deficiency diseases and irregular periods in women

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18
Q

Outline each stage (1-4) of the menstrual cycle

A

Stage 1 (day 1-4) - bleeding begins as the lining of the uterus breaks down

Stage 2 (day 4-14) - a thick spongy layer full of blood vessels develops and lines the uterus once more

Stage 3 (day 14) - an egg is released from an ovary

Stage 4 (day 14-28) - the uterus lining is maintained for around 14 days, if the egg isn’t fertilised and doesn’t implant inself into the wall of the uterus, the cycle will begin again.

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19
Q

Name the three hormones that are crucial to the menstrual cycle

A
  • FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
  • Oestrogen
  • LH (Luteinising hormone)
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20
Q

With reference to hormones and the pituitary gland, explain egg release in the menstrual cycle (3 main steps)

A
  • Pituitary gland produces FSH, which causes an egg in the womans ovary to mature
  • The ovaries are stimulated to release oestrogen and this causes the pituitary gland to produce LH.
  • LH is the hormone that dictates when the egg is released into the uterus.
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21
Q

Define the term pathogen

A

A pathogen is a micro-organism that can enter the body and cause disease/illness

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22
Q

What are the four different types of pathogen?

A

Virus

Bacteria

Funghi

Carcinogen

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23
Q

What are the main differences between viruses and bacteria? (3)

A

Bacteria are small living cells, viruses aren’t

Viruses cannot be seen with a microscope, whereas bacteria can (they are about 1/100th the size of body cells)

Bacteria cause illness by damaging cells and producing toxins. Viruses invade cells and use their machnery to replicate themselves, the cell will often burst to release more viruses and it is this cell damage that causes illness.

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24
Q

List the ways your body is adapted to fight disease (4)

A
  • Skin
  • Cilia and mucus in your respiratory tract
  • Fragments of cells called platelets help blood to clot quickly and seal wounds
  • White blood cells consume and digest foreign cells, produce antibodies and anti toxins
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25
Q

Explain the process by which white blood cells produce antibodies and prevent future illness

A
  • Every cell has antigens on its surface
  • When a white blood cell discovers unknown antigens they create specialised antibodies (proteins)
  • Antibodies lock on and neutralise/kill the invading cell, they circulate the body rapidly to eradicate all similar bacteria/viruses
  • The body will remember all pathogens that have previously entered the body and store antibodies necessary to fight them, creating immunity
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26
Q

Which conditions occur when someone has a) too many or b) too little white blood cells in their body?

A

a) Leukaemia
b) HIV → AIDs

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27
Q

How do antibiotics prevent illness?

A

They kill or prevent the growth of bacteria without damaging body cells, they are specialised to different strains

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28
Q

What are the two main issues with antibiotics?

A
  • They cannot destroy viruses.
  • Bacteria can become resistant as they evolve to survive antibiotic use - this is known as a mutation. Doctors have to be careful not to overprescribe antibiotics so as not to encourage these mutations.
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29
Q

How do vaccinations work?

A

The body is injected with a small amount of dead or inactive pathogens. These pathogens carry antigens and, despite being harmless, cause the body’s white blood cells to produce antibodies to eliminate them. The production of antibodies creates immunity against that pathogen in the future as white blood cells are able to recognise them quickly.

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30
Q

Give the pros (3) and cons (3) of vaccination

A

Pros:

  • Has reduced cases of common diseases eg. small pox
  • Can prevent infectious epidemics
  • Prevention is often better, less expensive than the cure

Cons:

  • Don’t always provide immunity
  • Can wear off and booster injections are necessary
  • Bad reactions are possible (eg.swelling/fever/seizure) but these are rare
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31
Q

By what method can the resistance of bacteria be investigated?

A

Microorganisms are cultured in a petri dish of agar jelly (containing all the nutrients they need to grow). Paper discs are soaked with different types of antibiotics and placed on the jelly, antibiotic resistant bacteria will grow around them but non-resistant strains will die.

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32
Q

Why is equipment sterilised and temperatures kept low in labs?

A

Equipment must be sterlilised to prevent contamination and unwanted microorganismas affecting the results of experiments.

The temperature must be kept low (generally below 25 degrees in school labs) because harmful pathogens are unlikely to grow at this temperature.

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33
Q

What did Ignaz Semmelweis witness when he was working in Vienna General Hospital in the 1840s?

A

Huge numbers of women dying after childbirth from puerperal fever.

34
Q

How did Semmelweis tackle the death rate at Vienna General Hospital?

A

He believed doctors were spreading disease on their hands so he made them wash their hands in an antiseptic solution before entering his ward, this reduced deaths from 12% to 2%.

35
Q

Why was Ignaz Semmelweis’ methods of washing hands mocked and dropped when he left Vienna General Hospital?

A

He couldn’t prove his theory because the existence of bacteria and their part in causing disease wasn’t discovered for another 20 years.

36
Q

Why is antibiotic resistance in bacteria a problem?

A

People who become infected with bacteria can’t easily get rid of them and in many cases strains are mutuating a lot faster than drug companies can develop new antibiotics.

37
Q

Do viruses mutate?

A

Yes, very often and thus it is hard to develop vaccines against them because changed in their DNA can lead to them having different antigens.

38
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers produced and secreted by various glands and organs. They are carried in blood plasma and travel in blood to activate target cells.

39
Q

What are nerves?

A

A bundle of fibres in the body that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord, and from there to the muscles and organs.

40
Q

What are the four main differences between the way hormones and nerves control the body?

A
  • Nerves send a message faster than hormones
  • Hormones act for a longer period of time than nerves
  • Nerves target a specific area whereas hormones act in a more general way
  • A hormones response to stimluli is often prolonged, nerves have quick effector reaction
41
Q

List the 5 sense organs and the stimuli they detect

A
  1. Eyes - detect light (cells are very much like animal cells)
  2. Ears - sound receptors and control balance, sensitive to change in position
  3. Nose - smell receptors, sensitive to chemical stimuli
  4. Tongue - taste bitter, salt, sweet, sour and savoury stimuli
  5. Skin - sensitive to pressure, pain and temperature change
42
Q

What are receptors and what do they do?

A

Groups of cells in sense organs that detect stimuli, they convert stimulus energy into electrical impulses

43
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The CNS is where all the information gathered by sense organs is sent and where reflexes/actions are coordinated and relayed to effectors (muscles/glands) which act accordingly.

44
Q

What does the central nervous system consist of?

A
  • The brain
  • Spinal cord
  • Sensory neurones
  • Relay neurones
  • Motor neurons
  • Effectors
45
Q

Describe the role of a) sensory neurones b) relay neurones and c) motor neurones

A

a) Sensory neurones carry signals as electrical impulses from receptors in the sense organs to the CNS
b) Relay neurones carry signals from the sensory neurones to the motor neurones
c) Motor neurones are the nerve cells that carry signals from the CNS to effectors.

46
Q

How do the two different types of effectors (muscles and glands) react to electrical impulses sent from the CNS?

A

Muscles contract

Glands secrete hormones

47
Q

What is a synapse and how is the nerve signal transferred across it?

A

A synapse is a connection between two neurones. Signals are transferred by chemicals that diffuse across the gap and set off a new electrical signal in the next neurone.

48
Q

How do reflexes help to prevent injury?

A

Sense organs are able to detect a stimuli that may harm us and the CNS can send electrical signals that cause the effectors to move us out the way of this harm. Also, if you get a shock, your body releases hormones before you even register the shock.

49
Q

Describe how the reflex arc works (4 main steps) Use a diagram if it helps.

A
  • When stimulus is detected, impulses are sent along the sensory neurone to the CNS.
  • When impulses reach a synapse, they trigger hormones to be released that allow the impulse to continue along the relay hormone.
  • Impulses will reach a synapse between a relay and motor neurone and the same thing will occur.
  • Impulses then travel along the motor neurone to the effector, causing it to act/reflex
50
Q

Why are reflexes faster than concious decisions?

A

Neurones in the reflex arc go through the spinal chord or an unconcious part of the brain, this means you dont have to think about your reaction to the stimuli.

51
Q

How can hormones be used to decrease fertility and how are they commonly prescribed?

A
  • If oestrogen levels are kept high, it inhibits the production of FSH and after a while egg development and production stop.
  • Progesterone reduces fertility by stimulating the production of thick cervical mucus that prevents sperm getting through and reaching the egg

→ The combined pill is an oral contraceptive that contains both of these hormones and a progesterone only pill (with fewer side effects) is also available.

52
Q

List three pros and three cons of the combined pill

A

Pros:

  • 99% effective at preventing pregnancy
  • Reduces risk of some cancers
  • Accesible and easy to take

Cons:

  • Not 100% effective
  • Can cause side effects like headaches, nausea, irregular periods and fluid retention
  • It doesnt protect against STDs
53
Q

How are hormones used to increase fertility and what are the advantages and disadvantages of this technology?

A

Follicle-stimulating and Luteinising hormones can be injected by these women to stimulate egg release in their ovaries if their levels of FSH are too low to cause their eggs to mature.

Advantage: Enables women to conceive

Disadvantage: Doesn’t always work and can be expensive, too many eggs can be stimulated and result in multiple births

54
Q

What is IVF?

A

In vitro fertilisation involves using FSH and LH to to stimulate egg production, then collecting eggs from the woman’s ovaries and fertilising them in a lab using a man’s sperm. These are grown into embryos, one or two will be transferred to the woman’s uterus to improve the chance of pregnancy.

55
Q

Give the pros (1) and cons (4) of IVF

A

Pros:

  • Allows infertile couples to conceive

Cons:

  • Some women experience strong reactions to the hormones (vomiting, dehydration, abdominal pains)
  • Reports of increased cancer
  • Multiple births occur, increases risk to mother and baby
  • Expensive and many couples have to go through more than one cycle of treatment
56
Q

What is auxin?

A

A plant hormone that controls growth near the tips of shoots and roots.

57
Q

Which three factors does auxin grow in response to?

A
  1. Light (phototropism)
  2. Gravity (Gravitropism/geotropism)
  3. Moisture
58
Q

Describe how auxin responds to light and gravity

A

When a shoot is exposed to light, more auxin accumulates on the side thats in the shade in order to make the cells elongate and the shoot bend towards the light.

When a shoot is growing sideways, gravity causes there to be more auxin on the lower side of the tip. This causes the lower side to grow faster and the shoot to bend upwards.

59
Q

What affect does auxin have on roots in response to gravity and moisture?

A

In a root, auxin inhibits growth on the lower side so the cells on top elongate faster and the root bends downwards.

More auxin is produced on the side of the root that is emersed in more moisture, causing the root to bend in that direction towards the moisture.

60
Q

Give two ways plant hormones can be used in agriculture

A

Most weeds in crop fields have broad leaves (unlike grasses and cereals) so selective weedkillers are made of plant growth hormones that only affect broad leaved plants by disrupting their normal growth patterns and eventually killing them.

Rooting powder contains auxin to produce roots rapidly, this helps growers to produce clones of a good plant quickly.

61
Q

What are the 4 components of homeostasis (the body levels that need to be controlled to keep cells working)?

A
  1. Ion content
  2. Sugar content
  3. Water content
  4. Temperature
62
Q

What chemical dictates ion content in the body and how is it regulated (2 ways)?

A

Ions (sodium, Na+) are taken into the body in food

If the food contains too much of any ion then it must be removed (eg. salty meals)

  • Ions are lost in sweat
  • Kidneys will remove excess from the blood and get rid of it in urine.
63
Q

How is glucose (blood sugar) supplied to the body and how is sugar content in the blood maintained?

A

Carbohydrates supply glucose int the blood (from the gut)

  • The metabolism of cells remove glucose from the blood (the more excersise you do, the more glucose is lost)
  • Insulin (a hormone) maintains glucose levels so your cells get a constant supply.
64
Q

How is water lost from the body? (3)

A
  • Through skin as sweat
  • Via the lungs in breath
  • Via the kidneys in urine
65
Q

How does external temperature effect water lost from the body?

A
  • On a cold day with little excersise you don’t sweat much so will urinate more, which will be pale because the urine is more dilute.
  • On a warm day when you excersise you sweat a lot so you will produce less, more concentrated urine. You will also lose more water through breath when excersising.
66
Q

What organ controls body temperature?

A

Enzymes within the human body work best at 37 degrees

The brain acts as a thermostat and it sensitive to blood/skin temperature.

67
Q

What is a drug and how do they affect your body?

A

Drugs interfere wit the chemical reactions in your body and can lead too addiction, an addict is likely to suffer withdrawal symptoms.

68
Q

List the three different types of drug and why they are used

A
  • Medicinal druges (such as antibiotics) are taken to improve health
  • Recreational drugs are taken for fun (to get a high)
  • Performance enhancing drugs improve a person’s physical ability
69
Q

Why might someone take performance enhancing drugs, name two different types and what are the two main risks?

A

To make them better at sport.

Types include anabolic steroids (increase muscle growth) and stimulates (increase heart rate).

  • They can have negative health effects (steroids can cause high blood pressure)
  • Some are banned by law and all are banned by sporting bodies
70
Q

List two arguments for and two arguments against athletes taking performance enhancing drugs

A

For:

  1. Athletes have the right to make their own decisions
  2. Drug-free sport isn’t fair anyway - access to difefrent facilities, funding, coaches, equipment

Against:

  1. It creates an unfair advantage
  2. Athletes may not be fully informed of the health risks
71
Q

How was it decided that statins should be prescribed to the general public in order to lower the risk of heart and circulatory?

A

Research was done by governent scientists (that were not linked to the manufacturer) with a large sample size of 6000 patients. It compared two groups - those who had taken statins and those who hadn’t.

72
Q

What are the mental health issues raised with cannabis use?

A

Scientists believe it causes psychosis, paranoia, insomnia and even schitzophrenia but not enough research has been done to make a conclusive link between the two.

73
Q

What are the three main stages in drug testing?

A
  • Testing on human cells and tissue
  • Testing on live animals
  • Testing on human volunteers in a clinical trial
74
Q

Why is testing on human cells and tissue sometimes not useful?

A

You cant test drugs that affect whole or multiple body systems

75
Q

Why do people test drugs on live animals and what is the law regarding this in Britain?

A

To test if it works on the appropriate body systems, its toxicity and appropriate dosage.

The law in Britian states that new drugs must be tested on two different live mammals.

76
Q

How are drugs tested on humans?

A
  • First on healthy volunteers to make sure there are no harmful side effects (low dosage increased throughout experiment)
  • People with ilness are trialed on the drug and the optimum usage is found.
77
Q

Describe how a clinical trial works

A

The sample size is split into two groups, one receives the placebo and the other, the real drug. The individuals (both patients and doctors) do not know which is which until after results about effectiveness and side effects have been gathered.

78
Q

Give an example of when a drug hasn’t been tested thoroughly and it has had disastorous consequences

A

Thalimode, a drug developed as a sleeping pill was developed in the 1950s. It was later found to reduce morning sickness and thus prescribed to pregnant women. It passed through the placenta and in many cases caused abnormal limb development. 10,000 babies were effected, half survived. The drug was banned but has recently been found to help in the treatment of leprosy and some cancers.

79
Q

How is cannabis use linked with “harder” drugs? (3)

A
  • Cannabis is a stepping stone to want to try more drugs
  • It is a gateway drug - bringing people into contact with dealers and social circles that function around recreational drug use
  • Drug use and addiction is genetic, those who try cannabis are likely to try other recreational substances
80
Q

How does smoking effect health? (3)

A
  • Disease of the heart, blood vessels and lungs
  • Tobacco smoke can cause cancer
  • Nicotine is highly addictive
81
Q

How does alcohol effect health?

A
  • Impacts on the nervous system and slows down the body’s recations
  • Can lead to impaired judgement, poor coordination and unconsciousness
  • Damages the liver and brain
  • Highly addictive

Biology 1 (2 decks)

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