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B&B1 Flashcards

1
Q

Why was Galileo put on trial?

A

Put on trial because - challenged Aristotle’s view (supported by the Catholic Church) that the earth is the centre of the universe.
He believed the sun was the centre of the world (heliocentric model)
New way of thinking so it’s interesting to think about how we think about ourselves (The relationship between mind and brain provides a similar challenge to how we think about ourselves)

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2
Q

Ancient Egyptians beliefs on the brain

A

Link between the brain and behaviour because they thought damage to the head and to the brain caused change in behaviour
When Egyptians were preserved their heart would be the only organ left in their body due to a belief in the afterlife; your heart was weighed with feathers and a light heart was good – this was important to the success in the afterlife

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3
Q

What did Plato and Aristotle think the 3 parts of the mind were?

A

3 parts of the mind (differentially developed in philosophers (reason), soldiers (emotions) and so on):
logos – higher thinking
thymos – emotional response
eros – sexual desire

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4
Q

What is meant by an immaterial soul?

A

The psyche/ soul is independent of the body (mainstream religions adopted this position)

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5
Q

What is meant by materialism?

A

Galen’s observation of nerves coming out of the brain led to the belief that there are links to controlling information and connections are interlinked

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6
Q

What is meant by dualism?

A

Desacrates: link between brain and mechanisms

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7
Q

What did Desacrates believe about people with mental illnesses?

A

they had lost their mind so there is no point in helping them

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8
Q

what are 3 problems with dualism?

A

(1) damage to the pineal gland doesn’t affect behaviour massively
(2) fluid is not communicated in nerves
(3) how does a non-material mind interact with a material body (defies laws of physics)

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9
Q

Describe the concept of phrenology

A

looking and feeling bumps of head which dictate personality traits

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10
Q

Who supports the idea of localisation of functions in the brain?

A
  • Gall: phrenology
  • Broca: Broca’s area
  • Wernicke: Wenicke’s area
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11
Q

Who supports the idea of distributed functions across the brain?

A
  • Flourens: experimented on pigeons with lesions
  • Lashley: rats in mazes found the concept of equipotentiality: all parts of brain contribute to all intellectual perception of behaviour
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12
Q

Define equipotentiality

A

all parts of brain contribute to all intellectual perception of behaviour

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13
Q

Which view does modern neuroscience hold?

A

localisation of functions because complex behaviour involves many brain areas

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14
Q

Describe single neuron recording

A
  • invasive, usually done before surgery
  • Hubel and Wiesel as an example
  • Single electrodes record action potentials from individual neurons. These are electrical signals that neurons use to communicate with each other.
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15
Q

Describe EEG and MEG

A
  • non invasive
  • EEG records electrical activity and MEG records magnetic activity
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16
Q

Describe fMRI

A
  • can locate regions in the brain responsible for facial recognitioning as they light up due to blood flow in that area
  • these techniques measure changes in blood flow that accompany changes in neural activity
  • neural activity uses energy which is replenished by nutrients (glucose and oxygen) in the blood
  • fMRI detects change in magnetic signals that occur with the increase of blood flow and it measures the change in magnetic signal caused by the ratio of oxygen/deoxyhemoglobin
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17
Q

Describe TMS

A
  • non invasie
  • disrupts electrical activity in the brain due to a magnetic coil
  • a strong magnetic pulse causes electrical acuity in a specific region of the brain which disturbs neural signalling
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18
Q

What does the liver of pufferfish contain?

A
  • tetrodotoxin: prevents the transmission of action potentials, the electrical signals by which neurons communicate
  • the brain sends out commands that the body cannot respond to due to the electrical signals never reaching the destination and since the muscles cannot move, the victim dies of suffocation
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19
Q

Describe Otto Loewi’s synaptic transmission experiment

A
  • two hearts in cylinders connected by a tube
  • one heart was connected to the vagus nerve (known to decrease heart rate). As the heart connected had a reduced heart rate, so did the other heart
  • this shows that chemicals released by neurons might be important for communication across the whole brain and this led to the rebirth of modern psychiatry and drug development
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20
Q

Describe the anatomy of a neuron (6)

A
  • cell body
  • dendrites
  • mylen sheath
  • axon
  • axon terminal
  • nucleus
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21
Q

what’s the purpose of neurons?

A
  • they convey electrical signals and the key to this process is the movement of charged particles (ions) across the neuronal membrane
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22
Q

What are ion pumps

A

proteins in the neuronal membrane that control the movement of ions from the intracellular to the extracellular space

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23
Q

What is the lipid bilayer

A

separates the molecules from the inside to the outside of the neuron

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24
Q

What do ion channels do

A

let ions pass from the inside to the outside of the membrane and vice versa
- they’re selective to specific ions
- they allow them to move along their concentration for their electrical gradient

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25
Q

What do ion pumps do

A

shift ions across the membrane but they can move ions in different directions to their concentration and electrical gradient

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26
Q

what are the 2 forms that determine the movement of ions in and out of cells

A
  • concentration/diffusion (high to low)
  • electrical (negative ↔ positive)
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27
Q

What does the fluid inside and outside the neuron contain?

A

different types of ions
- sodium
- potassium
- chloride
- large negative ions

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28
Q

What happens to ion channels at rest

A
  • the only channels open are leak potassium ion channels
  • but there is a higher concentration of potassium outside the neuron which pulls the potassium out
  • however, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged pulling the potassium in and the two forces are in opposition - they reach equilibrium at -65mV
29
Q

Describe sodium and potassium pumps

A
  • the Na/K pump contributes to this imbalance by pumping out 3 Na ions out of the cell and taking 2 K ions in
  • this lead to:
  • a net loss of one + charged inside the neuron
  • a higher concentration of K outside the neuron
30
Q

Describe the term threshold

A
  • at rest, a neuron is negatively charged -65mV
  • if negative current is injected an IPSP occurs and the neuron becomes less likely to fire an action potential
  • threshold is the voltage at which a neuron will fire an action potential
31
Q

What is meant by hyperpolarisation

A

If a negative current is injected, an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) occurs because the neuron becomes less likely to fire an action potential

32
Q

What are voltage gates Na and K channels

A
  • they play an important role in generating action potentials
  • there are 2 types of voltage gated channels (Na+ and K+)
  • these open when the membrane becomes depolarised above threshold due to EPSP
  • Na channels open and close faster than the slower K channels
33
Q

Describe what happens at the synapse in terms of ions

A
  • calcium ions enter the axon terminal at the pre synaptic neuron
  • these cause vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapse
  • the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor site which opens and allows specific ions to move into the post synaptic neuron causing a change in potential
34
Q

how and why does a neurotransmitter get removed from the synapse

A
  • When neurotransmitters have had their action, they need to be removed from the synapse
  • The action of glutamate in the synapse is terminated by being taken up by glial cells, where it is recycled and the used again
35
Q

who was the scorecard killer

A
  • randy Kraft
  • murdered over 16 men
  • he managed to get evidence for NGRI
36
Q

What are PET scans

A

measure blood flow to different areas of the brain - the parts that become more active require more blood flow and therefore you can infer behavioural characteristics

37
Q

What did Raine study

A
  • antisocial personality disorder: impulsive, irresponsible and often criminal behaviour
  • this is on a spectrum so it can range in severity
  • Raine studies measure brain activity in people with APD and evidence from comparing the brain of psychopaths suggests people who commit violent crimes are not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI)
38
Q

What did brain scans reveal about people with APD

A

less activity in prefrontal regions, imbalance of the hemispheres, more activity in occipital love amygdala and hippocampus

39
Q

How many neurons in the brain

A

100 billion

40
Q

what are glial cells

A

they do not contribute directly to signalling in the brain but perform important functions nontheless

41
Q

what are astrocytes

A
  • astrocytes: maintain appropriate chemical environment in brain (reuptake of neurotransmitters
42
Q

what are oligodendrocytes

A

they cover axons with myles to aid nerve conduction

43
Q

what are microglial cells

A

play an important role in immune responses: like white blood cells

44
Q

what is the ratio of neurons to glial cells

A

1:3 (3 times more glial cells than neurons)

45
Q

Describe the peripheral nervous system

A
  • autonomic nervous system: divided into parasymphatetic and sympathetic
  • the peripheral nervous system includes all the neurons and axons that lie outside the central nervous system in the muscles, gut, heart and skin
46
Q

What is grey matter

A

where you find neurons

47
Q

what is white matter

A

where you find axons surrounded by mylen (which is white)

48
Q

Describe the functions of the lobes

A

Frontal – higher functions, controlling motor actions, body movements, decision making etc.
Parietal – sensory motor, sensory processing
Temporal – visual, hearing, language
Occipital - vision

49
Q

What is the difference between a gyri and a sulci

A

gyri: hills of the brain
sulci: valleys (serpentines)

50
Q

describe coronal sectioning of the brain

A

frontal, divides anterior from posterior regions

51
Q

describe sagittal sectioning of the brain

A

divides the hemispheres

52
Q

describe the horizontal sectioning of the brain

A

divides superior from inferior regions

53
Q

What is the basal ganglia made up of

A

caudate
putamen
globus pallidus

54
Q

What is the medulla useful for

A

basic reflexes like swallowing, breathing etc

55
Q

what is the association tract

A

information tracts that go from a place to another within the hemisphere

56
Q

what is commissure

A

information between left and right hemisphere like corpus callusom

57
Q

what is the projections tract

A

cortical to subcortical levels

58
Q

define neuroethology

A

understanding differences in the brain of different animals in order to learn more about our brains

59
Q

define allometry

A

the importance of brain size relative to body size

60
Q

define residual brain size in humans and animals

A

humans have larger residual brain size due to the brain weight being larger than the average body weight
blue whales have largest brain but lower body weight than anticipated to them so they have a smaller residual brain size

61
Q

define the principle of proper mass

A

the idea that the size of a brain region controlling a particular function will be proportional to the complexity of processing involved in performing that function
- superior colliculus: involved in vision
- inferior colliculus: involved in hearing

62
Q

what are the correlations between IQ and cortical thickness

A

developmental studies show that changes in thickness can predict intelligence - higher correlation between thickness and IQ for different developmental stages
- during late childhood and early adolescence, the cortex increases in thickness but then decrease with time

63
Q

what is the principle of proper mass

A

size of brain region controlling a particular function will be proportional to the complexity of processing such as the superior colliculus

64
Q

define social intelligence theory

A

the demands of navigating a complex social group favoured the evolution of advanced brain structures such as neocortexes in primates

65
Q

whats the correlation between iq and cortical thickness

A

changes in thickness predict intelligence

66
Q

what happens when a membrane becomes depolarised above threshold

A

voltage gated Na+ ions channels open first

67
Q

describe the process of ion channels

A
  1. at rest, K+ ion channels are open
  2. higher concentration of K+ outside the neuron which pulls K+ out
  3. but inside is negatively charged so pulls K+ in
  4. the two forces are in opposition so equilibrium is created at 65mV
68
Q

when do voltage gated channels open

A

when membrane becomes depolarised above threshold due to EPSP

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