B - Alexander III Flashcards
What were the causes of the Crimean war?
“Eastern question”, treaties of Adrianople, Unkar Skelesi and Straits convention, religious tensions
Reasons for Russia’s loss in the Crimean war?
disorganisation of army: serfs, lack of modern techniques, no supply routes / no communication or transport
What were the most striking consequences of the Crimean war?
highlighted the necessity to reform: catching up to the West through industrialisation, fear of revolution from below
What were the social consequences of the Crimean War?
emancipation of Serfs, reforms in education, 450000+ casualties
What were the military consequences of the Crimean War?
Russia was prohibited from maintaining a fleet in the Black sea, modernisation of the military (harsh discipline, modernisation of training)
What were the political consequences of the Crimean War?
catalyst of reforms, reform of local governments: Zemstva
What were the economic consequences of the Crimean War?
construction of 20000km of railway system, war weakened Russian finances
Why was the emancipation of the Serfs required for modernisation?
as otherwise they’re tied down to the land instead of being able to congregate in cities
Reasons for emancipation?
Crimean war, moral/ethical reasons, army couldn’t be reorganised, peasant unrest, to preserve autocracy, benefits of free peasant labour
What were the terms of emancipation?
serfs received the land they worked on from nobility, but had to pay redemption payments (up to 49 years), mir was strengthened (control of ex-serfs), ex-serfs were in a different system of justice
Consequences of emancipation for nobles?
1/3 of land lost, redemption payments only went towards repaying debt
Consequences of emancipation for serfs?
dissatisfaction (1195 uprisings in the first year), loss of land, redemption fees, still tied to the mir
What were the social results of emancipation?
both peasant and nobility discontent
What were the economic results of emancipation?
encouraged growth of rail-ways, banking, cities and industry, flow to towns restricted by mir, no strong market or surplus production
What were the political results of emancipation?
gentry’s loss of political power = they demanded more, Zemstva created, growth of liberalism
What were the ‘Fundamental laws’ of 1832?
state that the emperor of Russia is an ‘autocrat and an unlimited monarch’
Who were Committee of ministers?
a group responsible for particular and purely administrative roles (didn’t formulate policies)
Who were the Council of ministers?
main task was to discuss draft legislations
Who were the Imperial council?
a body that gave informal advice to the tsar on legal and financial matters
What was the ‘Third section’?
a secret police that was in charge of security, involved control over any careless or dangerous expression
What was the role of the nobility?
provincial governors, faithful supporters of the tsar
What was the main slogan of tsars?
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality
What were the reforms made by Alexander II in terms of local government?
Zemstva Act 1864
Municipal Statue 1870 - Duma town councils
Evidence of change/success of the reforms for local government?
Zemstva: delegation of powers, included different groups (40% peasants), improved administration
Duma: responsibility of public matters
Evidence of continuity or failure of the reforms for local government?
Zemtsva didn’t treat people equally, no responsibility beyond local issues
tsar still held most power and no consideration for a central body
What were the reforms made by Alexander II in terms of legal matters?
Judicial reforms 1864
Evidence of change/success of the reforms for legal matters?
independent judiciary, independent bar (spread of ideas), public trials, public salaries to avoid bribery
Evidence of continuity or failure of the reforms for legal matters?
judges were selected by tsar, subjectivity of judges, following the Vera Vasulich case - no voice for political opponents (private courts)
What were the reforms made by Alexander II in terms the military?
Military Code 1863
Statute on Universal Military Service 1874
Miliutin as minister of war
Evidence of change/success of the reforms for the military?
conscription reduced and extended to all classes, extreme corporal punishment ended, Special Army Schools, reduced service for the educated
Evidence of continuity or failure of the reforms for the military?
nationalists opposed reforms, bribery & infighting
What were the reforms made by Alexander II in terms of education?
Education reform 1862
University regulation 1863
Evidence of change/success of the reforms for education?
expansion of university places, extended primary education, texts from abroad - universities were given autonomy
Evidence of continuity or failure of the reforms for education?
class bias for poor students, many of these were reversed by Toltsoy -> 1866 assassination attempt created restrictions
Describe the intelligenstia as opponents of the tsar.
anti-autocracy, wanted to dismantle the Orthodox church, tiny proportion of the population
How did the events of 1862-69 lead to a growth in revolutionary activity?
failure of emancipation to liberate the peasantry, dissolution of St Petersburg zemtsvo after calls for constitutional reform, 1866 assassination attempt and increasing reliance of the Third Section
What was the Chaikovsky Circle?
a group that believed that the peasants weren’t ready for uprising, so they distributed propaganda/banned books, pressing forward the “t the people” approach
What happened with the Narodniks and ‘Going to the people’?
1874 - members went to countryside aiming to get the peasants’ to understand their views
however peasants denounced them to authorities and 800 people were arrested
What were the two trials that made the government look impotent and incompetent?
193 trial: only 153 acquitted and were given light sentences
Vera Vasulich: wasn’t acquitted
Who were the Black Partition as opponents of the tsar?
group who used peaceful methods - black soil province amongst the peasants
Who were the People’s Will as opponents of the tsar?
violent group: planted a spy in the Third Section and thus outmanoeuvre the police, attempted assassination of tsar 1879 and attempt to blow up Winter Palace in 1880
How many people were subjected to internal exile in Serbia between 1801-1917?
over 1 million
What was the Ministry of Internal affairs responsible for?
detailed supervision of Russia’s provincial administration, entirely arbitrary system of law enforcement
Why was censorship introduced?
to fight liberal and nationalist ideas
What did censorship entail?
vigorous suppression of free speech, 1865 Press Laws: permission to publish had to be obtained before publishing
Why can we argue that the 1866 assassination attempt bought an end to Alexander’s reforms to Russia?
Alexander rejected demands for general assembly
a swing to the right: Toltsoy as education minister, limited entry
Pyotr Shuvalov as head of Third section
and Konstatin Pahlen as ministry of justice
Describe the development of the Secret Police?
- following sept 1878, those who were suspected were liable for exile
- 1879, another attempt on the Tsar, ‘Temporary Governors General’ were allocated
- after 1880 attempt, Third Section was abolished (inefficient)
replaced by Department of Police - after 1881, Corps of Gendamers were not subject to judiciary supervision -> secret police was essence of the Russian monarchy
What were the problems of Russia’s economy?
limited rail tracks, lack of an efficient administrative system, lack of financial institutions
How were state accounts reformed?
Reutern introduced proper system of public accounting and abolished tax farming -> confidence in investments
State Bank was founded in 1860, Municipal in 1862 and Savings in 1869, roubles were put in line with value of gold reserves
How was railway construction reformed?
increase from 2194 miles in 1864 to 13,979 miles in 1878, significant boost to industry sector, attraction of foreign investment
How was industrial production reformed?
1869 - John Hughes created New Russia Company in Ukraine, rich in coal and pig iron, Yuzovka & oil industry on the Caspian sea, 1860-1879 = 242.4 million poods of coal
Evidence of success of economic reform?
increased trust due to public records -> encouraged investment, 6% growth per year, railway system increased trade/exports/movement of people, price of rye bread dropped by 66%
Evidence of failure of economic reform?
small success in comparison to other countries, dependence on foreign investment (only 100 million roubles), peasants still paid high Poll tax, most railways were privately owned
Aims of the Russian economy?
catch up to Industrialised west, strengthen standing in the world, retention of trading with foreign powers
How much did the government invest in the economy, and what does this show?
53 million, shows that economy was a high priority and “proto-managed economy”
What was Russian expansionism?
between 1646and 1914 Russia expanded more than any other European country - for strategic and economic reasons
What is Russification?
suppression of local characteristics and imposing Russian language and identity - created distaste and hatred for government
What was the nature of the opposition from the Poles?
hopeful of Alexander after years of opposition, but then 1863: Polish rebels attempted to seize control of government
Treatment and policies towards Poles under Alexander II?
Wielopolski as Prime Minister (Tsar’s “lapdog”) -> no reforms were made, after he fled Emancipation Statue was introduced = fairer and more equitable distribution of land
What was the nature of the opposition from Ukranians?
not as nationalistic as Poles, but wanted to build a seperate cultural identity
Treatment and policies towards Ukranians under Alexander II?
1863 + 1876 decrees forbsde publication and import of books from Ukraine
What was the nature of the opposition from Caucasians?
large diversity + high illiteracy rate meant easy Russification, but rising populist movement
What was the nature of the opposition from the Finns?
low opposition due to liberal stance -> peaceful existence
Treatment and policies towards Finns under Alexander II?
liberal stance - Finnish parliament in 1863 and constitution 1865
Treatment and policies towards the Baltic Provinces under Alexander II?
centre of Russia economy -> Russification, including the renaming of various educational institutions
What was the nature of the opposition from the Jews?
never posed much of a threat, only perceived
Treatment and policies towards the Jews under Alexander II?
Pale of Settlement -> Jews only, migration out only allowed for economic reasons
What were some causes of the Polish revolt?
rise of Polish nationalism (by summer of 1862=increase in n of mass demonstrations), proposal of forced conscription of Poles into the army, restoring a degree of Polish Autonomy (Warsaw uni),
What was the Polish revolt like?
guerilla tactics - Polish nobles, threatened stability of government, significant destruction in countryside
Why did the Polish revolt fail?
due to their inability to capture the hearts of the peasantry and gain their support
What were the consequences of the Polish revolt?
Milyutin replaced Wielopolski, in 1866 Poland lost its name and became the Vistula region -> increased russification
What did Milyutin’s plan involve?
Polish nobility exiled to Siberia, Polish peasants were emancipated with better terms than their Russian counterparts, 1869 - Uni of Warsaw language of instruction was Russian, Catholic Church had its property confiscated
What was the main cause of the Russo-Turkish war?
Pan-Slavism
What was the key difference between the Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin?
the Treaty of San Stefano gave Russia a much better position, so the Congress of Berlin was seen as a defeat for Russia even though it gained control of the mouth of Danube -> Slavs were outraged and increased ill-feelings for Alexander II
What was the Russo-Turkish war’s impact on Nature of government?
weakened the position of Alexander and his government
Compare the Russo-Turkish war and the Crimean war?
both led to distaste to Alexander and his government and diminished the gov’s authority, but Russo-Turkish war didn’t lead to any reforms
What was the Russo-Turkish war’s impact on the Economy?
financial crisis (collapse of the rouble), end of Free-Trade era in Russia’s economic developments
What was Loris-Melinkov’s belief?
that an “attentive and positive response” was needed from the government to increase the “people’s trust”
What were Loris-Melinkov’s reforms?
gave peasants securer civil rights, abolished Third Department, replaced Toltsoy, Abaza as minister of finance
What was Loris-Melinkov’s proposal?
calling of a national assembly, in part elected and in part nominated members
