Autism Flashcards
All of the explanations of autism and exam question layouts/techniques
What is autism?
Autism is a lifelong disorder that begins in childhood and impairs everyday functioning. It is a spectrum disorder, which means that everyone shares the same core difficulties, but they are affected to different degrees.
What are the two main categories of symptoms of ASD?
Social triad and the 4Rs
What are the key concepts in the social triad? (ASD)
Social communication, social interaction and social imagination
What does it mean when a person with ASD is impaired in social communication? What are some examples of these impairments?
Individuals with ASD have varying impairments in social communication. This means they have difficulty understanding speech, gestures, eye contact, tone of voice and language. E.g. Speaking in a monotone voice, struggling to understand sarcasm, not being able to use gestures or understand other people’s gestures, interpreting language literally, etc.
What does it mean when a person with ASD is impaired in social interaction? What are some examples of these impairments?
Individuals with ASD have varying impairments in social interaction. This means that they struggle with building and sustaining relationships, sharing, giving and receiving compliments, enjoying conversation, showing concern for others and understanding. E.g. children finding it difficult to instigate or join in play with others, struggling to show empathy and appearing ‘cold’ or not understanding social rules, like being too honest.
What does it mean when a person with ASD is impaired in social imagination? What are some examples of these impairments?
Individuals with ASD varying have impairments in social imagination. This means that they struggle with predicting reactions and events, problem solving, creative activities, coping with changes, relating to others and planning. E.g. may have difficulties playing team games or imagining how others feel.
What are the key concepts in the 4Rs? (ASD)
Repetitive behaviours, routines/rituals, restricted interests and usual reactions to stimuli.
What are some examples of repetitive behaviours? (ASD)
Repetitive behaviours, routines/rituals, restricted interests and usual reactions to stimuli.
What are some examples of rituals/routines/resistance to change? (ASD)
-Inflexibility to routines
-Carrying out behaviour step-by-step
-Demanding people use words in a ‘set’ way
-Overreacting to changes in routine
-Rigid thinking patterns
What are some examples of restricted and fixated interests?
-Individuals with ASD are often preoccupied with a narrow interest or topic (colours, numbers, symbols) to the exclusion of all others
-Become obsessed with very specific things, such as mesmerising the London underground or bus timetables
-‘Little professor syndrome’
What are some examples of unusual reactions to stimuli? (ASD)
-Becoming distressed by loud sounds
-Do not like to be touched (e.g. hugging or having hair brushed)
-They may be obsessive about the movement of objects, like opening and closing or spinning.
-First response to an object may be licking or sniffing it.
-May look at objects for periods for long periods of time for no reason.
Why are boys more frequently diagnosed with autism than girls?
-Current diagnostic criteria overlooks how ASD presents in girls, as it was developed using boys.
-Girls with ASD resemble typically developing boys in terms of social development, but show different brain development to neurotypical girls.
-Girls often diagnosed with ADHD, OCD and anorexia instead of ASD.
-Girls tend to ‘mask’ characteristics of ASD better than boys - leading to lower diagnoses.
A typical exam question for the characteristics of autism is:
Q) Outline the characteristics of autistic spectrum behaviour. [10]
How would you answer this?
-Briefly outline what autism is - “a lifelong disorder that begins in childhood and impairs everyday functioning. It is a spectrum disorder, so everyone experiences the same core difficulties but at varying degrees.”
-Describe the two categories of symptoms (Triad of impairments and the 4Rs) and provide at least 5 examples, e.g. unusual reactions to stimuli, such as covering ears and flapping arms, restricted interests and little professor syndrome, non-verbal communication, struggling to maintain relationships, etc.
-Mention the prevalence in males and explain why girls with ASD often go undiagnosed.
Another typical exam question for the characteristics of autism is:
Q) ‘Deborah has recently been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Deborah’s parents have noticed that her behaviour and linguistic patterns are different to other children of her age.’ Describe how the characteristics of Deborah’s behaviour would be different to other children. [15]
10 marks for AO1:
-Describe the two categories of symptoms (Triad of impairments and the 4Rs) and provide at least 5 examples, e.g. unusual reactions to stimuli, such as covering ears and flapping arms, restricted interests and little professor syndrome, non-verbal communication, struggling to maintain relationships, etc.
-Mention the prevalence in males and explain why girls with ASD often go undiagnosed.
5 marks for AO2:
ALWAYS link back to the statement. For example, say “Deborah’s parents might notice that Deborah has unusual reactions to certain stimuli, such as covering her ears and becoming incredibly distressed when she hears loud noises, while other children are only slightly startled by loud noises.”
What are the two biological explanations of ASD?
Amygdala dysfunction and genetics
Explain the main ideas behind the amygdala dysfunction explanation of ASD.
The amygdalas of people with ASD develop differently in childhood compared to neurotypical people, so this is what causes social difficulties in people with ASD.
What is an example of evidence that supports the fact that ASD brains develop differently to neurotypical brains?
Nordahl et al (2012) found that from 2 years of age, there is a larger growth in the amydala volume n children with ASD (6-9%). by late adolescence/early adulthood there is no difference in amygdala volume between those with ASD and those without. The growth in volume occurs earlier in children with ASD and this may result in abnormalities in the neutral organisation of the amygdala and damage its functioning.
What is an example of research that supports the idea that amygdala dysfunction impacts social behaviour in those with ASD?
Baron-Cohen (2000) As the amygdala has neural connections with the frontal cortex, abnormal development of the amygdala in childhood is a casual factor involved in social and behavioural deficits. Therefore, those with ASD have difficulties in understanding the expression of emotions in other people. He investigated this using the ‘eyes task’.
What is the ‘eyes task’? (ASD)
Adults with ASD were matched with a control group of adults without ASD.
Participants were presented with photographs that only showed the eye area of people making different facial expressions and asked to identify the expression shown.
The brain activity was measured in an MRI scanner during the task.
What were the findings and conclusions of the ‘eyes task’? (ASD)
ASD performed significantly worse on the eye task than controls.
MRI scans showed that the left amygdala was not activated in the ASD participants at all, but was strongly activated in the controls. The left amygdala is involved when we infer emotional state from facial expressions (especially eyes) and this function is impaired in people with ASD.
How can the amygdala dysfunction explanation be applied to methods of modifying ASD?
Oxytocin
If research suggests that the amygdala dysfunction is a cause of ASD behaviours related to social behaviours and emotional processing, then improving the amygdala may help to reduce these behaviours. Intranasal oxytocin has been found to enter the brain effectively and work to increase oxytocin levels in areas such as the limbic system, where the amygdala is located. Some studies have shown that when people with ASD take intranasal oxytocin, they show improved scores on tests of social behaviours.
A typical exam question for the amygdala dysfunction explanation of autism is:
Q) Describe one biological explanation for autism spectrum behaviours. [10]
How would you answer this?
-Brief intro: Explain what the amygdala is and that it is key in emotional and social processing.
-Explain how amygdala development is different in those with ASD, provide evidence, e.g. Nordahl et al (2012)
-How is it dysfunctional? Use the Baren-Cohen study
A typical exam question for the amygdala dysfunction explanation is:
Q) Evaluate one biological explanation of ASD. [10]
How would you answer this?
-ve Some of the research isn’t fuly valid
Baren Cohen’s ‘eyes task’ study. A problem with this is that interpreting emotions is incredibly subjective and therefore may not be entirely valid.
+ve Supporting evidence
Kennedy et al (2009) did a case study on a woman called SM who had damage to the amygdala. Did not have ASD, but displayed similar social difficulties, such as not understanding personal space and not feeling fear.
-ve Inconsistent findings
Howard et al (2000) an increased amygdala volume was found in adults with ASD.
Pierce et al (2001) a decreased amygdala volume was found in adults with ASD.
What are the main ideas of the genetics explanation of ASD?
This explanation believes that schizophrenia is inherited through genes passed down through families. This is investigated through twin, family and adoption studies.
What is the difference between simplex and multiplex families? (ASD)
Simplex - families with only one member with ASD (‘one-off’ case’)
Multiplex - more than one family member diagnosed with ASD, or multiple members with autistic traits but not yet diagnosed.
In multiplex families, ASD is likely to be caused by a genetic variation that is inherited. In simplex families, ASD is likely caused by a ‘de novo’ mutation.
What is a de novo mutation?
A genetic alteration that is present for the first time as a result of a variant (or mutation) in a germ cell (egg or sperm) of one of the parents, or a variant that arises in the fertilised egg itself during early embryogenesis.
What are some examples of supporting research of family studies of ASD?
Szatamari (1991) combined the data from several studies to calculate ‘overall sibling risk’. This showed the proportion of siblings of people diagnosed with ASD that also meet the criteria.
The rate was 2.2% for someone with siblings with ASD, and 0.11% for someone without siblings with ASD.
Therefore, there is a 20x greater risk of developing ASD if you have a sibling with it.
What are some examples of supporting research of twin studies of ASD?
Bailey et al (1995) analysed data from the British Twin Study. The concordance rate for MZ twins was 60% and for DZ twins it was 0%.
The researchers then widened the definition of autistic behaviours to include other characteristics as well as social impairment, and found a 92% concordance rate for MZ twins and 10% for DZ twins.
Ritvo et al (1985) found concordance rates of 96% for MZ twins and 23% for DZ twins.
What are some issues of twin studies with ASD?
-Studies were conducted before 2013, meaning that they are based on old criteria for ASD (this is also true for family studies)
-Lacks temporal validity - may not be correct based on current criteria.
-There is a disagreement in concordance across studies - lack of consistency
-Lacks external reliability.
A typical exam question for the genetic explanation of autism is:
Q) Describe one biological explanation of autism spectrum behaviours. [5]
How would you answer this?
-Brief intro: The genetic explanation of autism states that you are more likely to be diagnosed with ASD if an immediate family member is also diagnosed.
-Family research suggests there is a greater risk in siblings, e.g. Szatamari (1991)
-Twin research suggests there is a greater risk in MZ twins, e.g. Bailey (1995)
-Explain the difference between simplex and multiplex families - mention the de novo mutation.
Another typical exam question for the biological explanation of ASD is:
Q) Evaluate one biological explanation of ASD. [10]
How would you answer this?
+ve Reductionist
P: One strength of the genetic explanation of ASD is that it is reductionist. By taking a reductionist viewpoint, researchers are enabled to focus on one component of ASD and study it in detail.
E: For example, the identification of the de novo mutation that can explain the onset of ASD in ‘one-off’ cases.
C: However, reductionism can also be a weakness as it oversimplifies the explanation for the onset of ASD. By only studying the genetic influence, other potential influences of ASD are being ignored, like the theory of mind, for example.
L: Therefore, even though a reductionist viewpoint allows for a more in-depth understanding of the genetic contribution to the onset of ASD, this perspective alone does not give us a holistic understanding of the potential causes of ASD.
-ve Problems with twin studies
P: One issue with twin research is that there is disagreement in concordance rates across studies.
E: Bailey et al (1995) found a rate of 92% for MZ and 10% for DZ twins, while Ritvo et al (1985) found a rate of 96% for MZ and 23% for DZ twins - meaning that the explanation lacks external reliability.
E: Both of these studies were conducted before 2013, meaning that they are based on old criteria for ASD. Lacking in temporal validity, as they may not be correct based on current criteria.
L: Therefore, the genetic explanation of ASD lacks sufficient evidence to have a strong argument, and relying on this research alone leaves the relevance of this explanation up for debate.
-ve Nature vs Nurture
P: Heavily biased towards nature
E: The explanation goes into depth on many aspects of genetic influences on ASD, such as the different family types that have a genetic influence on ASD (simplex and multiplex).
-Can be viewed as a positive, because it allows for a much more detailed explanation of the biological elements of ASD, leading to a more clear explanation of the cause of ASD.
C: However, because this explanation focuses only on nature, other potential influences on the development of ASD are ignored, e.g. refrigerator mother.
L: Therefore, not completely accurate as it doesn’t provide a full explanation.
Conclusion: Useful? Why/why not?
What are the two individual differences explanations of autism?
Theory of mind (ToM) and Weak central coherence (WCC)
What are the main ideas behind the theory of mind?
The theory of mind is the understanding that people have thoughts, emotions, desires, beliefs, and intentions that may be different from our own. Baren-Cohen argued that people with autism don’t have a fully functioning theory of mind.
What evidence is there to support the dysfunction of the theory of mind in ASDs?
Baren-Cohen (2000) Eye task. Adults with ASD matched with adults without. Shown only the eye area of faces making different facial expressions. MRI scans used. ASDs performed significantly worse than controls and left amygdala was not activated. Left amygdala is where we infer emotion - impaired in ASDs.
Baren-Cohen’s Sally-Anne task. Tested three groups of children aged 4: ASDs, down syndrome and neurotypical with two dolls. Only 20% of ASDs got test right compared to 86% down syndromes and 85% neurotypicals.
What were the findings of Baren-Cohen’s Sally-Anne task?
“Where will Sally go looking for her doll?” Correctly answered:
ASDs - 20%
Down syndrome -86%
Neurotypical - 85%
What are some pre-cursors of ASD? (Signs that a child has autism)
-Not engaging in pretend play
-Struggling to imitate others
-Not following another person’s gaze
These are all signs of a deficit in the ToM
What evidence is there for pre-cursors of autism?
Scaife and Bruner (1975) - stated that typically developing children will show these skills (pretend play, imitating others and following another’s gaze) by 14 months - this is delayed with children who go on to be diagnosed with ASD.
A typical exam question for the ToM explanation of ASD is:
Q) Describe one individual differences explanation explanation of ASD? [10]
How would you answer this?
-Brief intro to the ToM: Definition, explain that this is impaired in ASDs
-Precursors of ToM, e.g. not engaging in pretend play. Mention Scaife and Bruner (1975)
-Explain how deficits of ToM can explain the characteristics of ASD
-Give at least one study example, e.g. Sally-Anne task and how it links to ToM in ASD.
Another ypical exam question for the ToM explanation of ASD is:
Q) Evaluate one individual differences explanation of ASD. [10]
How would you answer this?
+ve Supporting evidence
P: One strength of the ToM explanation is that there is evidence to support it.
E: Baren-Cohen’s Sally-Anne task. Only 20% of children with ASD answered correctly.
C: Issues with study - pps only 4 years old, arguably too young to grasp the scenario. 15% of neurotypicals answered incorrectly when theoretically 100% should have answered correctly, as they have no ToM deficit.
L: Therefore, although Sally-Anne provides sufficient evidence to support ToM, results may have been skewed as task too difficult for young children. Could be improved.
-ve Not all ASDs have a ToM deficit
P: One weakness of the ToM explanation is that some studies have found that not all ASDs have a ToM deficit
E: Prior (1990) found that children with ASD could complete false belief tasks successfully. And, Baren-Cohen found that 20% of ASDs completed Sally-Anne task successfully.
E: This is a weakness, because it shows that quite a lot of people with ASD don’t struggle with a theory of mind deficit, since some people with ASD can perform successfully in false belief tasks.
L: Therefore, the ToM explanation isn’t entirely useful as it cannot be applied to all ASDs.
-ve Doesn’t provide a whole explanation of ASD.
P: One weakness of the ToM explanation is that it doesn’t provide a whole explanation of the behaviours displayed by ASDs.
E: The theory of mind is the understanding of other people’s thoughts, emotions, beliefs and intentions. Supporting research has found that ASDs have a ToM deficit, meaning that they often struggle to understand the emotions and actions of others, and cannot predict them either.
E: This explains the impaired social triad in ASDs (social communication, social interaction and social imagination), but completely ignores routines/rituals, restricted interests, unusual reactions to stimuli and repetitive behaviours.
L: Therefore, although the ToM provides a thorough explanation of the social impairments in ASDs, it fails to provide an explanation for other behaviours, and is therefore not useful.
Conclusion: Useful? Why/why not? How could it be improved?
Why was the weak central coherence theory created?
The weak central coherence theory is based on cognitive principles, similar to ToM. The WCC theory was developed as the ToM was seen to be incomplete as it could not explain all aspects of ASD, such as repetitive behaviours. The ToM also cannot explain the advanced perceptual abilities that some people with ASD have, e.g. detecting small changes in their environment. This is where the WCC theory comes in.
