Australia COPY COPY Flashcards

Question

When did the last Penfolds "Hermitage" happen?

Answer 1

Cowra Mudgee Orange

Answer 2

Broke | Fordwich

Answer 3

Hastings River

Answer 4

New England

Answer 5

Shoalhaven Coast | Southern Highlands

Answer 6

Canberra District Tumbarumba Hilltops Gundagai

Answer 7

1915- 1994 | Australian winemaker who created Penfold's Grange Hermitage

Answer 8

1930- 2013 Australian producer who saved growers from ruin by buying grapes his employer had refused, establishing Barossa icon Peter Lehmann Wines

Answer 9

Potential recognised for winemaking in 1788 on establishment of the colony. Vineyards have spread throughout each (very marginally in NT) of the states. Long heritage of producing fortified wines (Sherry and Port styles and Muscats). Heavy investment in equipment, knowledge and vineyard has led rapidly to being recognised as quality wine producer in many markets.

Answer 10

A combination of competitive prices, consistent quality and market-led style production have enabled Australia to lead export markets, this is essential because the domestic market is small and static. Three potential threats to the Australian wine industry include: - Climate change and impact on water availability and quality. - Supply- demand imbalances leading sometimes to over-production while capacity grows. - Aggressive pricing with wine sold at heavily discounted prices with little profit for the company. Success with varietally labelled wines that give a wine drinker a clear idea of what they can expect when they buy a bottle. Clear concept of marketing and creating labels, both back and front that appeal to the shopper.

Answer 11

Old labelling terms of Burgundy, Claret, Chablis, etc have been phased out in an agreement with EU law. Geographical Indicators (GI) committee formed in 1993 to determine the GI for wine in Australia. Not appellations; do not specify grapes, methods or wine styles (this would restrict experimentation). Ensures validity of information on the bottle label. 85% of stated variety, 85% of stated origin, 85% of stated vintage.

Answer 12

Vineyards generally planted near the coast on flat or rolling countrysides, due to the arid, desert conditions of inland Australia, exception of Murray- Darling where the rivers once provided plentiful water for irrigation, now drought is threatening this.

Answer 13

Some cool climate regions such as Tasmania and high altitude mainland sites. Overall climate is hot mediterrean near the coast, however major difference between the wine- making zones. Vintage takes place between February and April. May in the cooler regions.

Answer 14

The full impact of soil in Australia is still being researched but many wines are made from regions that display recognisable regional characteristics and premiums paid for fruit from prestigious regions such as Coonawarra and McLaren Vale. Even the large 'South Eastern Australian' blends can combine characteristics from different regions to contribute to the overall balance and complexity.

Answer 15

Most young vineyards are wire trained for ease of pruning and machine harvesting. Some of the world's oldest vines in Australia, these are un-grafted, bush trained Shiraz.

Answer 16

Hierarchy of zones and regions to indicate the geographical source- South Eastern Australia super zone, State zone, area zone and Region Large super- zone South Eastern Australia covers 95% of total Australian vineyards and allows blending from different regions while still qualifying for this country wine status in the EU. Often large volume branded wines.

Answer 17

Includes Murray Darling, Riverina and Riverlands. Water for irrigation from rivers. Mainly inexpensive varietal and basic table wine. Some excellent quality sweet botrytised Semillon from Riverina.

Answer 18

Main area is Hunter Valley, 160 kms north and inland from Sydney.

Answer 19

Soils predominately volcanic basalt. High rainfall at harvest, making grey rot a problem. Grafted vines due to presence of phylloxera. Success of the Lower Hunter Region due to tourism as lose proximity to Sydney. Some importation of grapes from more reliable areas. Soft, earthy Shiraz, Semillon with low sugar, high acidity and flavours of honey and toast produced.

Answer 20

Drier with irrigated vineyards, Chardonnay dominates.

Answer 21

Three regions on the slopes of the Western ranges inland from Sydney; Mudgee, Orange and Cowra. Cooler climate gives concentrated Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. White varieties such as Sauvignon Blanc and Riesling planted as higher altitude with reds planted in the lower vineyards around 600m. Hilltop region, new plantings at very high altitudes, various reds, Chardonnay and Semillon grown.

Answer 22

Small district, increase in plantings due to Constellation. High altitude vineyards with frost a problem, producing delicate Pinot Noir and Riesling.

Answer 23

Historically important, old vineyards destroyed by phylloxera. Diverse region accounting for 25% of total production

Answer 24

Murray- Darling region, large quantities of healthy fruit for bulk wine production.

Answer 25

Zone encircles Port Phillip Bay with a number of regions. Yarra Valley region stretches from the north eastern suburbs of Melbourne. Soil structure varies considerably, from sandy or clay loam to red volcanic soil. Planted on slopes of 50 to 470m above sea level. Climate is cool and wet, under- ripeness and fungal disease a problem. Main grapes grown are Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon in th warmer sites and Pinot Noir. Most widely planted grape is Chardonnay with citrus character and crisp acidity. Pinot Noir of high quality produced, with a style that is full bodied and fruity without being jammy. Mornington Peninsula region, south of Melbourne has a maritime climate, it is made up of boutique producers specialising in Chardonnay and Pinot Noir. Geelong region is barren and has a very windy climate. Also a centre for Pinot Noir production.

Answer 26

Rutherglen region, famous for Liqueur Muscats and Tokays and some red production. King Valley and Alpine Valley region are high altitude, cool climate sites with experiments grape varieties such as Sangiovese, Graciano and Mondeuse. Lower altitude sites have success with Chardonnay and Shiraz.

Answer 27

The Goulburn Valley and Heathcote regions produce distinctive whites from Rhone Varieties Marsanne, Rousanne and Viognier; quality Rieslings, Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Answer 28

Grampians Region at the end of the Great Dividing Range has limestone rich soils, recognised for its excellent sparkling wines, including Shiraz, made in cellars chiselled out of ancient caves found in the area. Also produces powerful, tannic still Shiraz. The Pyrenees region countryside, with a cooler climate produces full bodied reds and fine styles of Chardonnay. Bendigo regions is warmer than the Pyrenees and produces extravagant reds from Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Answer 29

Small southerly cool climate region. Historically sparkling wine producer, now also producing elegant Pinot Noir and white wines from Alsatian varieties.

Answer 30

43% of total production, phylloxera free with strict quarantine restrictions of vineyard material and machinery from out of state.

Answer 31

Riverland region, large quantities for Bulk wine. Healthy fruit with little disease risk due to the low rain fall. Hot climate leads to sugar ripeness before phenolic ripeness.

Answer 32

``` Barossa region, north of Adelaide, settled in 19th Century by German immigrants, soils of limestone and ironstone. Long, dry summers, necessitating irrigation and causing drought occasionally. Hot climate produces outstanding wines from old bush vine Shiraz, Grenache, Cabenet Sauvignon and Mataro (Mouvedre). Classic Barossa Shiraz is full bodied, soft and spicy developing aromas of leather with age. Surrounding hills (eden valley region) produces high quality, medium bodied dry/ off-dry high acidity Rieslings. Lime and Lemon developing into honey, petrol and toast with age. ```

Answer 33

McLaren Vale region, south of zone, cooled by ocean breezes. Red wines with soft juicy fruit and full body produced from Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Merlot and Grenache. Langhorne Creek produces earthy full-bodied Shiraz.

Answer 34

Clare Valley region, cooler climate. Especially cool nights produce light bodied, austere Rieslings with ageing potential. Cool climate Adelaide Hills region specialises in Chardonnay with elegance, high acidity and nectarine and lemon characters. Growing confidence with Sauvignon Blanc. One particular area, Piccadilly Valley has Chardonnay resembling Sauvignon Blanc due to the high acidity and flavour structure. Also produces base for sparkling wine production, Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Riesling and Semillon.

Answer 35

400km south-east of Adelaide, near border of Victoria. Cool climate, influenced by ocean currents. Coonawarra region with soils of red terra rosa soil over limestone base produce excellent quality Cabernet Sauvignon. Spring frost, rain at harvest and under ripeness of fruit are main viticultural problems. Similar soils found in surrounding regions. Padthaway has warmer climate with richer fruit flavours.

Answer 36

3% of total production, but 30% of the awards= high quality, commanding high prices on the International market.

Answer 37

Swan Valley region, very hot climate with dry summers. Historic region.

Answer 38

Main region is Margaret River located 200km south of Perth, maritime climate with dry and warm summers and wet winters due to proximity to sea. Strong winds in spring can disrupt flowering. High salt content in ground water means dams for irrigation water are essential. Variety of styles such as outstanding Bordeaux blends, varietal Cabernet Sauvignon, elegant Chardonnay and herbaceous, aromatic Semillon are produced. Frankland River and Mount Barker are sub-regions of Great Southern region. Widely spread and young vineyard area, experimentation with varieties still are occurring. Known for full bodied Cabernet Sauvignon, peppery Shiraz and pure fruit driven Riesling. Pemberton region produces good Pinot Noir and Chardonnay and fine Verdelho on the warmer sites.

Answer 39

Approximately 90 different grape varieties grown. Top grafting common to change variety quickly. Eight main white and eight red varieties are grown. Red- Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Ruby Cabernet, Grenache, Mataro (Mouvedre) and Cabernet Franc White- Chardonnay, Thomson Seedless, Semillon, Riesling, Muscat Gordo Blanco, Sauvignon Blanc, Columbrad and Verdelho

Answer 40

Many low yielding old vines pulled out in the 1980's vine- pull scheme. Remaining old vines a major factor in quality Shiraz. Soft, spicy wine, develops leather and caramel with age in hot climate. Elegant with peppery characters in cool climate. Multi-region blends combine the characters. Blended with Cabernet Sauvignon, giving softness and body. Shiraz/ Viognier Cote Rotie style blends becoming popular. Other experimental blends produced.

Answer 41

Dark black currant and blackberry with high acidity and firm tannins. Single varietal or blend with Shiraz or Merlot. Classic regions include Coonawarra and Margaret River.

Answer 42

Planted widely, producing a range of different styles. Blending regions common; each region contributing different aromas, and degrees of oak, lees and malolactic characters. Oak treatments often used (chips, staves in tank, barrel fermentation and ageing), recent trend for un-oaked Chardonnay. Also blended with Semillon.

Answer 43

Australia's finest white wine. Citrus fruit developing into toast, honey and petrol with age. Unoaked and usually dry or off-dry, some sweet styles made. Classic regions include Eden and Clare Valley.

Answer 44

Planted widely for blending. Classic region is Hunter Valley producing light bodied wines with crisp acidity developing toast, nut and honey with age. Herbaceous style producing in Western Australia similar to Sauvignon Blanc.

Answer 45

Makers of Australia’s most famous fine wine Penfolds Grange, now owned by treasury wine. Penfolds’ first vineyard was founded in 1844 at Magill, South Australia, by Dr Christopher Rawson Penfold. For more than 100 years, Penfolds, in common with most Australian wineries, concentrated on producing fortified wines and brandy, much of which was exported to the UK. In 1950, Max Schubert, then chief winemaker, visited Europe, primarily to observe the making of sherry in Spain, but detoured on the way home to visit Bordeaux, where he was taken in hand by Christian cruse. This inspired him to adopt an entirely new approach to fermentation techniques and the use of new oak, the aim being simultaneously to protect the varietal flavour of Shiraz while adding a level of complexity previously unknown in Australia. Schubert’s ambition was to create a red that would rival the finest wines of Bordeaux for both quality and the potential to improve with age for up to 50 years. This he achieved with Penfolds Grange (known as Penfolds Grange Hermitage until eu authorities objected to this misappropriation of a French place-name), now widely acknowledged to be Australia’s greatest wine. The first vintage of Grange, named after Dr Penfold’s cottage in Magill, was 1951; all early vintages were made from Shiraz grapes grown at Magill and Morphett Vale, Adelaide, and the wine was matured in new American oak for 12 months. So intense did the first vintages seem that they were rejected as maverick ‘dry port’. In 1957, Schubert was ordered to cease production of Grange; instead he took the operation underground, emerging three years later when maturing vintages began to fulfil their promise. In fact, fine vintages of Grange improve for up to 30 years and beyond (the 1952 and 1953 vintages were still magnificent), and the wine became the first new world wine to become an internationally acknowledged collectible. Fruit from Kalimna in the Barossa Valley was introduced in 1961, boosted by grapes from the Clare and Koonunga Hill vineyards. Small amounts of Cabernet Sauvignon are included in most vintages of Grange, and the wood-ageing period has been lengthened to between 18 and 20 months. The wine is not released until five years after the vintage. A string of award-winning red wines from Penfolds followed, many identified by bin numbers which originated in the winery stock-keeping system. Of particular note is Bin 707 Cabernet Sauvignon. In 1998 Penfolds released the first vintage of its super-premium Yattarna Chardonnay, now recognized as one of Australia’s finest. A stream of ‘Special Bin’ luxury reds followed in the early 2000s, not least the 2008 Bin 620 Cabernet/Shiraz, priced in line with first growth bordeaux, and 2010 Bin 170 Kalimna Shiraz that is even more expensive

Answer 46

Australian wine brand whose early-21st-century growth in the US, from a standing start, set records in the history of branding and gave birth to the infamous ‘critters’ (small animals on labels) wine category. The Casella family had just 16 ha/40 acres of vines in riverina and supplied bulk wine until John Casella with an aggressive, export-orientated manager planned an assault on the embryonic US market for Australian wines in the late 1990s. A first attempt failed but new branding involving a yellow kangaroo image and the irritating but eye-catching logo [yellow tail] (sic), together with particularly fruity, not to say sweet, wines and a bold profit-sharing scheme with their US importer W. J. Deutsch & Sons. Annual US sales rose from 200,000 cases in the launch year of 2001 to 7.5 million in 2004, by which time Yellow Tail was the top imported wine brand in the US. By 2014 the Casellas were exporting 12.5 million cases to more than 50 countries.

Answer 47

French spirits company whose wine portfolio is styled Pernod Ricard Winemakers. The company’s first significant wine acquisition was in 1989, the Orlando Wyndham Group of Australia which included the brand jacob’s creek. Etchart of Argentina, owner of Graffigna, followed in 1992, and then in 2005 Allied Domecq which included not just an array of spirits, but Montana (now brancott estate), and Stoneleigh in New Zealand, Campo Viejo in Rioja, and Mumm and Perrier-Jouët champagnes. In 2013 the company invested in the Chinese wine brand Helan Mountain of Ningxia and in 2014 acquired Kenwood Vineyards of California. A project in georgia begun in 1993 was abandoned.

Answer 48

Leading wine brand of pernod ricard, France’s share of the Australian wine boom. Some bottlings in the Reserve range, especially Steingarten Riesling, can be impressive.

Answer 49

Is a wine research, development, and extension organization owned and led by the Australian wine industry. Based in Adelaide, it also has offices in Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania. Formed in 1955, its governing board includes members elected by Australian winemakers and vine-growers who pay the Wine Grapes and Grape Research levy. Research is designed to increase fundamental understanding, particularly of wine’s composition, style, and sensory characteristics, but the AWRI has been famous among its peers for remaining responsive to the applied needs of producers and consumers. It has been particularly good at translating its research results into usable applications and fostering their adoption, and at spreading word of research and the development of practical solutions from around the world. In tough economic times the AWRI has been depending increasingly on income from commissions in analysis, benchmarking, and technical validation, as well as from providing export certificates and site audits. The Institute conducts seminars and workshops and has published more than 1,540 papers and articles.

Answer 50

South Australia

Answer 51

Barossa Valley, Barossa Zone

Answer 52

Tom Shobbrook is the son of Eden Valley grape growers and worked at Riecine Winery in Chianti for five years before returning to Australia in 2007. Tom returned with the intention of making wines that embraced Old World techniques and structure, a departure from traditional Australian winemaking. He converted his parent’s vineyard holdings to biodynamic farming and management. Tom is considered a leader in Australia’s blossoming “natural wine” movement, and he is outspoken about his winemaking style that is unique to the region. Shobbrook produces three labels, Didier, Didi, and Shobbrook. “Didier,” his French-influenced label consisting of both estate and purchased fruit he carefully selects, is named after Didier Dagueneau. “Didi” is considered his “experimental” label, and the wines include a Pinot Noir/Nebbiolo blend and one or two skin contact white wines. The Shobbrook label is made from exclusively estate fruit from more traditional Australian varieties such as Syrah, Mourvèdre, and Riesling and includes his flagship Shobbrook Syrah.

Answer 53

Shobbrock Syrah Tommy Ruff Syrah Mourvèdre

Answer 54

Shobbrook’s winemaking style has been colloquially labeled and is widely considered non-interventionalist, especially by Australian standards: no additions, fermentations by indigenous yeasts, and fermentations in barrel and clay eggs. Minimal sulfur is added prior to bottling, and some wines have no added sulfur. The wines are not fined or filtered.

Answer 55

Born in Felixstowe, England, he emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and arrived in Sydney, Australia, two years later, where his stepping stone into what was to become a lifetime’s immersion in wine was working for the new Chevron Hilton Hotel. His energetic enthusiasm for wine was such that by 1965 he was the first National Promotions Executive for the Australian Wine Board. Evans was one of the few to see that the future lay in table wine rather than in the sweet fortified drinks in which Australia then specialized. A natural performer and publicist, Evans caused such a stir that Australians were apparently convinced that real men could indeed drink table wine, and since then table wine has become increasingly important to Australia’s social life and economy. By 1969 he was writing books and articles on wine, had left the Wine Board, and was starting up the Rothbury Estate in the hunter valley and establishing his own restaurant-cum-dining club at Bulletin Place by Sydney Harbour. He collected people, preferably famous, with as much enthusiasm as seriously fine wine, but distinguished himself in his practical relish of both. He did not just transform blind tasting into a competitive sport, but even oversaw the creation of a game predicated on it, the options game, which was subsequently put to work raising substantial sums for charity under Evans’s direction. In the late 1970s, it seemed as though Evans, by now an intimate of the great and the good of the wine world, was about to take it over. Financed by a tax lawyer friend Peter Fox, he acquired properties in graves, sauternes, and the napa Valley, with plans to staff them using an early version of the flying winemaker concept. His exceptional tasting skills had also been recognized by his numerous invitations to judge at Australia’s important wine competitions, and by his appointment as chairman of judges (the first of many) at the Royal Sydney Show. In 1981, Peter Fox was killed in a crash and the Evans Wine Company was thrown into turmoil. From the remains, Rothbury survived, as did the Petaluma winery in the adelaide hills, with which Evans was involved from the start. Evans attempted to rusticate himself at his much embellished mud hut ‘Loggerheads’ overlooking Rothbury. From then he continued to write, broadcast, and keep tables or halls full of people entertained, while reminding them that wine is for drinking. He was awarded an Order of the British Empire as well as numerous wine industry distinctions and was made a Chevalier de l’Ordre du Mérite Agricole in 1994. In 1996, Rothbury, by now incorporating Saltram and St Huberts, was the subject of a hostile takeover bid from brewers Fosters, owners of Beringer Blass wines. Evans Family Wines and the establishment of Tower winery and luxurious lodge in the Hunter Valley became his chief commercial preoccupations although he continued to the end to play an important part in educating those with clear potential in the Australian wine industry. He is commemorated by the Len Evans Tutorial, an annual orgy of blind tasting.

Answer 56

Town north of Adelaide in the state of south australia, close to the Barossa Valley, known in the wine world for Australia's first agricultural college, established in 1883. It trained a high proportion of winemakers and viticulturists in Australia and New Zealand and contributed greatly to the technical standing of the Australian wine industry (see australian influence) until 1991 when it was relocated to the Waite campus of the University of Adelaide, where the australian wine research institute and csiro were already sited.

Answer 57

Australia’s biggest wine group in terms of revenue, and second-biggest (after accolade) in terms of wine production and grape crush. Treasury is a public listed company created in 2011 when Foster’s separated its wine interests from its brewing business. Its brands include some of Australia’s most prestigious, including penfolds, Wolf Blass, Wynns Coonawarra Estate, Seppelt, Coldstream Hills, Devil’s Lair, St Huberts, Heemskerk, and Saltram. Others include Annie’s Lane, Ingoldby, Jamiesons Run, Leo Buring, Lindemans, Rosemount Estate, T’Gallant, Tollana, and Yellowglen. It also owns Matua in New Zealand and many California brands of which the best known is Beringer, acquired in 2001 when Foster’s set up Beringer Blass, the first Australo-American wine group. In 2013 the company wrote off US$35 million worth of wine in response to sluggish sales in the US. Bottling facilities in Australia and the UK are shared with rivals accolade.

Answer 58

1990 vintage, requiring any wines labeled by variety, vintage, or region to contain a minimum 85% of the stated grape, year, or region, respectively. If multiple varieties are to be listed on the label (i.e., Grenache-Syrah-Mourvèdre) the grapes must be listed in order of proportion in the blend. All components making up a minimum 85% of the blend must appear on the label, and no listed grape may be in lower proportion than an unnamed variety.

Answer 59

The Hunter Valley

Answer 60

is subtropical, and has one of the warmest climates in Australia—a condition mitigated by high amounts of humidity, rain, and wind. Despite the heat, 60% of Hunter’s output is white wine; Semillon, or “Hunter Riesling,” is the region’s greatest white grape. Top Hunter Valley Semillon, such as Tyrrell’s “Vat 1,” may age for over two decades, surpassing an austere, grassy youth to develop richness, honey, and buttered toast tones over time. Surprisingly for such a warm climate, the grape rarely achieves more than 11-12% abv. The Portuguese white variety Verdelho is also popular in the region, producing more aromatic, tropical-scented wines. Broke Fordwich, a subregion of Hunter, claims the oldest Verdelho plantings in the country and offers dynamic Semillon wines sourced from sandy, alluvial soils. Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon are the region's most important red grapes.

Answer 61

is technically split between the state of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Shiraz performs extremely well in the region’s continental climate, and Clonakilla’s Canberra District Shiraz, co-fermented with a small percentage of Viognier, has rapidly risen to the ranks of Australia’s finest. To the southwest of Canberra, the alpine, cool-climate Tumbarumba GI produces sparkling wines and still Pinot Noir and Chardonnay from the sun-drenched, basalt slopes of the Snowy Mountains.

Answer 62

s cooled by sea breezes blowing up from Antarctica, and the Port Phillip zone surrounding the city of Melbourne has a cool maritime climate, experiencing winter average temperatures lower than Bordeaux or Burgundy. A genuine range of depth, distinction and style is evident in the Pinot Noir wines of the Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, and the warmer Geelong region within Port Phillip, as well as those from the coastal Gippsland zone to the east. The Yarra Valley GI, Victoria’s oldest wine region, was once the exclusive preserve of smaller boutique wineries, such as the outstanding Mount Mary, but investment and larger producers have arrived with the region’s modern successes. The French Champagne giant Moët & Chandon saw the Yarra Valley’s promise; they started the Australian Domaine Chandon here in 1987. In addition to Pinot Noir, elegant styles of Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Shiraz (often co-fermented with Viognier, and generally called "Syrah") are encouraging. Two distinct soil types—grey-brown sandy loam and red basalt-derived soils—divide the valley, and as producers continue to match soil, grape, and the wide diversity of altitude and site, Yarra Valley wines will continue to improve. The Mornington Peninsula, a sliver of land to the south of Melbourne that encloses the Port Phillip Bay, is an even cooler, windier region and one of Australia’s most profoundly maritime climates. Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris and Chardonnay thrive; much of the GI is too cool for late-ripening grapes like Cabernet Sauvignon.

Answer 63

The inland zones of North East Victoria, North West Victoria, and Central Victoria experience a more continental climate, typified by a large diurnal temperature shift. The North West Victoria zone is the hottest of the three, and irrigation is essential. Murray Darling and Swan Hill, the zone’s two GI regions, are shared between Victoria and the state of New South Wales. Vineyards are dominated by Chardonnay and Shiraz and are generally industrial in scope, threatened by Australia’s recent water woes. Central Victoria is only slightly cooler. Red grapes, particularly Shiraz, thrive in the Bendigo, Heathcote, and Goulburn Valley GIs. Phylloxera spelled disaster for many wineries in Victoria, yet Tahbilk, a compelling producer in the Nagambie Lakes subregion of Goulburn Valley, protected its vineyards from the pest and today produces a flagship Shiraz from vines planted in 1860. The estate also boasts the oldest Marsanne vines in Australia, and possibly the world. In the North East Victoria zone, Rutherglen and Glenrowan are famous for sweet fortified wines. A fortified “Topaque” (formerly "Tokay") style is produced from Muscadelle grapes. Rutherglen’s aged, fortified Brown Muscat (Muscat à Petits Grains Rouge) wines are incredibly rich, sweet, and raisinated, with the more mature wines displaying marked rancio character. The Muscat of Rutherglen Network, a producers’ syndicate established in 1995, has developed a voluntary four-tier classification system for the wines based on age, sweetness, and complexity. The ages and residual sugar ranges for each category are indicative of each classification, but not absolute. Producers are responsible for classifying their own wines, based on taste alone, and member wines are denoted by the inclusion of a stylized “R” logo on the label.

Answer 64

a coastal region within the South West Australia zone, is the state’s most acclaimed appellation, with production almost evenly split between red and white wines. Chardonnay, Semillon, and Sauvignon Blanc—and blends of the latter two—are successful in the maritime climate, but gravelly, elegant Cabernet Sauvignon and Bordeaux-style red blends inspire the highest praise. Cullen, Vasse Felix, Leeuwin Estate and Cape Mentelle are among the region’s best-known producers. The large Great Southern GI, to the east of Margaret River along the southern coastline, is the state’s second-most prominent region. There are five sub-regions: Mount Barker, Frankland River, Albany, Porongurup, and Denmark. Mount Barker today excels with cool-climate Riesling, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Answer 65

is the country’s largest state, and the wine regions within are the country’s most isolated—over 1,300 miles separate Perth, on Western Australia’s coast, from Adelaide in South Australia. Three enormous zones cover the inland and southern coast: Central Western Australia zone; Eastern Plains, Inland and North of Western Australia zone; and West Australian South East Coastal zone. As of 2010, nine wineries are in operation in the vast expanse of these three zones; as the majority of viticulture is conducted along the state’s southwestern coast, in the zones of South West Australia and Greater Perth. Furthermore, wine production since 1970 has been steadily shifting from the hot regions within Greater Perth—Swan Valley GI is the hottest appellation in Australia—to the cooler regions of South West Australia.

Answer 66

is not a major grape-growing state in Australia, although production is on the increase. Vineyards in the state’s two regions, Granite Belt and South Burnett, date to 1965 and 1993 respectively. Granite Belt experiences a continental climate with plentiful summer rain, yet growing patterns for Shiraz and Semillon in the region are moderated by high altitude and cooler mountain air. The more northerly South Burnett is subtropical. The unofficial region of Darling Downs, directly south of South Burnett, seems poised to become the state’s third GI in the future.

Answer 67

South of Victoria, the island state of Tasmania is Australia’s coolest wine-producing area. Tasmania is the sole GI, although unofficial regions exist and the island can be broadly divided between the northern and southern sectors. The climate of Northern Tasmania is similar to that of Champagne or the Rheingau, and Southern Tasmania is even cooler, although long sunshine hours during the growing season promote slow, even ripening. White grapes, particularly Chardonnay and Riesling, outnumber red plantings, but not by a wide margin. Pinot Noir can flourish, especially in the Pipers River area, and cool-climate Cabernet Sauvignon can be successful in the Tamar Valley and Coal River areas. Overall, the island’s climate is perfectly suited for sparkling winemaking, as finesse, elegance, and acidity can be maintained. Tasmania’s traditional method sparkling wines are among Australia’s best efforts in the category.

Answer 68

5- 10 years old

Answer 69

Another very early vintage, with most varieties and regions finished with harvest by mid-February. That has allowed for lower alcohols in regions such as Coonawarra, but the warm summer allowed for full flavour ripeness. It was a compressed and difficult vintage to produce, but the results should be promising.

Answer 70

Bush fires in the Adelaide Hills area may result in some smoke-tainted wines. Coonawarra had a warm spring but a cooler summer allowing for slow development and notably high tannin in the Cabernet Sauvignon. Barossa Shiraz enjoyed an excellent vintage while Clare Valley growers are enthusiastic about the quality of their Riesling.

Answer 71

Extreme weather conditions are increasingly normal for Australia, and 2014 saw everything from frost to high winds to heatwaves. Yields were lower than usual and while nobody is claiming it is a great vintage, quality is generally reliable across varieties.

Answer 72

The hottest summer ever for South Eastern Australia and yields were well down but the vine proved itself relatively resistant to the record temperatures with many varieties ripening in an unusually short period.

Answer 73

Lower-than-average yields in Australia, as across much of Europe. This was blamed on high winds, drought and low fruitfulness resulting from the poor 2011 vintage. Quality, however, was much better than in the exceptionally damp 2011, with South Australia avoiding some of the weather extremes experienced by other states. Strong varietal typicality is a commonly cited feature of the 2012 crop.

Answer 74

Wet across most of Australia, and 'one of the toughest in 25 years' according to Peter Gago of Penfolds, with lots of botrytis and mildew infections. Whites are generally thought better, with some excellent Clare Valley Riesling where fruit selection was stringent.

Answer 75

This was the year that the rain finally came, breaking a long drought. This brought some problems later in the season, with excess rainfall encouraging some mildew, but generally the impression is a positive one across the state.

Answer 76

A smaller vintage with another blistering heatwave to contend with. Opposite to 2008, the whites suffered most in 2009.

Answer 77

An extremely hot year wreaked havoc with reds, but the earlier picked whites look to be good quality, and the Barossa’s oldest vines weathered the heat as they always have done.

Answer 78

Very early, very small harvest, shrunk by the killer combination of frost and drought. Reds tend to be concentrated. Clare Rieslings are likely to shine.

Answer 79

Rain, very welcome in some respects, interrupted harvest at the end of the fourth successive drought-affected growing season. Limestone Coast Cabernets look promising.

Answer 80

Large crop of super-ripe wines in which both reds and whites were very successful.

Answer 81

Record crop even though the total volume was trimmed by extreme heat just before harvest. Increasingly highly regarded reds.

Answer 82

Eerily similar to many European 2003s, these are potent, fast-maturing reds shaped by a drought season with, often, a hole in the middle and very dry tannins on the finish.

Answer 83

Poor weather at flowering reduced yields considerably and was followed by an unusually cool summer and a late harvest leading to some high-quality wines. Inland irrigated regions benefited most obviously from this prolonged growing season.

Answer 84

A vintage that rewarded the quality-conscious. A usefully wet start to the growing season was followed by prolonged very hot, dry weather, broken by rain just before harvest in March. Some grapes suffered sunburn but lower-yielding vineyards produced true quality.

Answer 85

Very challenging vintage conditions which included poor flowering, hail, exceptional heat in summer and rain during harvest. There were problems with colour stability. Small crop.

Answer 86

The record crop was more the result of increased plantings than any natural phenomenon. Several years of drought conditions continued until summer, which was plagued by some storms which compromised vintage health. A cooler year than 1998.

Answer 87

Was then a record crop from an early, frantic vintages despite drought conditions. Some fine reds.

Answer 88

Vintage saved by a hot April with some fine Shiraz made, eventually, which should have a long life.

Answer 89

A big vintage at last, with sugars boosted by a late burst of heat.

Answer 90

Inconveniently small crop but some good Shiraz and Rieslings, especially in Clare, where quantities were better than elsewhere

Answer 91

Exceptionally dry but not too hot: the resulting wines are deep and structured, especially from the Barossa Valley.

Answer 92

Ripening was slowed by an unusually cool and wet spell. A challenging year with the whites especially more variable than usual.

Answer 93

Cool temperatures at harvest ensured balanced wines, exceptional from Clare Valley.

Answer 94

Dry weather restricted yields, but the quality was generally fine for all varieties.

Answer 95

Ideal weather: enough water and moderate temperatures. An excellent year in all regions.

Answer 96

Historic (see gold rushes), temperate Australian region notable for full-bodied but smooth red wines. Lack of water for irrigation (a potential problem with dry summers and periodic drought) limits expansion to fewer than 50 producers in an otherwise excellent region.

Answer 97

Relatively new, inland wine region with 16 producers on the same latitude as Margaret River in the South West Australia Zone of western australia.

Answer 98

Wine Region in Tasmania

Answer 99

A cool, maritime region with eight producers by 2014 in the Fleurieu Zone of south australia producing bordeaux blends (white and red), plus Shiraz. All are elegant.

Answer 100

Historic Australian wine region in North East Victoria Zone (see victoria), famous for Ned Kelly, fortified wines, and full-bodied reds. topaque and muscat.

Answer 101

Small wine region in Southern New South Wales Zone. Makes ripe, fleshy Shiraz and soft, peachy Chardonnay.

Answer 102

Warm and humid wine region on the north coast of new south wales. Mildew-resistant hybrid chambourcin is an important red variety. Many other grapes are sourced from more reliable regions. tourism is the principal rationale for the wineries’ existence.

Answer 103

(including Drumborg), particularly cool Australian wine region in the Western Victoria Zone (see victoria) used as a source of grapes for sparkling wines; also fine table wines, especially Riesling (Crawford River, Seppelt). It has just ten producers.

Answer 104

Old name for the very special sort of stickie made in australia from Brown muscat grapes

Answer 105

Moderately cool, high-elevation wine region in new south wales, Australia. Provides elegant, medium-bodied Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Tempranillo, Nebbiolo, and Australia’s only Rondinella/Corvina blend from moderately low-yielding vineyards.

Answer 106

Unique, cool, maritime region (fauna, flora, etc.) south of Adelaide in south australia. Bordeaux-based flying winemaker Jacques Lurton has established a vineyard and winery (The Islander), the leading product an eclectic blend of Sangiovese, Cabernet Franc, and Malbec.

Answer 107

On the north coast of new south wales in Australia with one region, Hastings River.

Answer 108

Australian wine zone parallel with northern rivers zone but on the western (inland) side of the Great Dividing range. The one region, New England, is developing rapidly, in part supplying its own wineries, and in part selling to queensland wineries, particularly in the Granite Belt.

Answer 109

Warm coastal region just to the south of Perth in western australia with chenin blanc and shiraz its best wines.

Answer 110

This Australian wine zone takes in the Southern Eyre Peninsula and the Yorke Peninsula on either side of south australia’s Spencer Gulf.

Answer 111

Large, sparsely populated, region bordering the Murray river in new south wales to the east of Australia’s Murray Darling region and south of the Riverina.

Answer 112

Picturesque, rapidly growing warm region just east of Perth in western australia. The region has moved from one of rustic, cottage craft to more polished winemaking with the arrival of Millbrook Winery and Western Range Wines.

Answer 113

Unofficial but generally recognized wine region in tasmania.

Answer 114

Region on the new south wales coast south of Sydney capable of producing surprisingly good Semillon. It also relies on chambourcin.

Answer 115

Young, relatively hilly Australian wine region in south east Queensland. It has a subtropical climate, with summer rainfall a real problem; coupled with generally fertile red soils. Ripening tannins can be challenging, but in the right vintages there have been impressive results with Semillon, Chardonnay, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon. It is also a very pretty region, well worth the two and a half hours’ drive from Brisbane.

Answer 116

Of new south wales stretches more than 400 km from north of Sydney, Australia, to the Victorian border in the south, but extends inland to take in Sydney itself, the Blue mountains, and the Southern Highlands and Shoalhaven Coast regions.

Answer 117

Strongly maritime wine region in south australia, one of the most westerly regions in the state. elevation is the key moderator of climate.

Answer 118

Australian wine region high on the Great Dividing range south west of Sydney. A somewhat schizophrenic climate, cold in winter and humid in late summer with rainfall then a problem. A popular weekend retreat for wealthy Sydney residents is a partial explanation for its development. It is growing gradually, with 18 producers, mostly between 500 and 700 m (1,640–2,300 ft) elevation.

Answer 119

Hilly, elevated Australian wine region in central victoria. Elevation, aspect, and soil differences provide a multiplicity of opportunity for the 14 producers here.

Answer 120

High-elevation, cool Australian wine region in victoria with the snowfields of mount Buller on one extremity, Strathbogie Ranges on the other.

Answer 121

A flat, warm to hot region immediately north of Adelaide with one notable winery, Primo Estate (which sources much of its fruit from outside the region).

Answer 122

Relatively new seaside wine region in the Limestone Coast Zone of south australia with nine producers. Two distinguished residents are chapoutier of the Rhône Valley and (via a large modern winery) G&C Kreglinger, relatives of the Thienponts who own Vieux Château Certan and Le pin in pomerol. The region makes elegant, light to medium-bodied wines.

Answer 123

Relatively new high-elevation, cool Australian wine region especially suited to Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir, the last two both for table and sparkling wine production. Spring frost is the major threat. NSW

Answer 124

Now substantial wine region just north of Coonawarra in south australia with a strongly limestone-based soil. Significant players among the 22 producers are Tapanappa, Yalumba/Smith & Hooper, Hollick, Patrick, Pepper Tree, and Terre à Terre.

Answer 125

Moderately cool, gently hilly wine region in the South West Australia Zone of western australia. Most of the 40 producers are tiny.

Answer 126

Cool subregion of the Great Southern region, Western Australia, with 14 producers and a strongly continental climate especially suited to Riesling, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon. (Also a town in the adelaide hills.)

Answer 127

In north east victoria zone in Australia encompasses inter alia the Ovens, Buffalo, Kiewa, and Buckland Valleys, and an important producer of a range of mainstream and ultra-eclectic varieties (Arneis, Petit Manseng, Saperavi, etc.).

Answer 128

Small but fashionable region with just 17 producers in 2014 in the foothills of the Victorian Alps with several iconic producers, notably Giaconda, in the north east victoria zone.

Answer 129

Vast, relatively cool zone east of Melbourne, victoria, noted for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. So far it has no regions simply because combined production from its 43 producers has not reached the critical 500-tonne mark. Depending on one’s view, there are either three (east, west and south) distinct climates, or six (the latter view propounded by Phillip Jones, the elusive proprietor of Bass Phillip, regarded by many as source of Australia’s best pinot noir).

Answer 130

Very cool, sparkling and fine table wine region in the Port Phillip Zone in the Australian state of victoria with 49 producers, including Bindi and Curly Flat.

Answer 131

Comprises the high-yielding, irrigated vineyards of the Murray Darling and Swan Hill regions falling on the victoria side of the Murray river in Australia.

Answer 132

Hilly Australian wine region in the Western Victoria Zone sandwiched between the Grampians to the west and Bendigo to the east, named after the mountains separating France from Spain. It has nearly 50 producers.

Answer 133

Historic Australian cool-climate wine region in victoria close to Melbourne’s northern suburbs, and even closer to its domestic and international air terminal. Of the 14 wine producers, Craiglee and Goona Warra are steeped in history, Craiglee a top-flight producer of spicy, elegant shiraz.

Answer 134

Wine Region in Tasmania

Answer 135

Usual abbreviation in the wine world for the University of Adelaide, in South Australia, with which roseworthy Agricultural College was merged in 1991 to form what is now known as the School of Agriculture, Food, and Wine, Australia’s principal and influential centre of wine education and research (see academe and australian influence). Most of the teaching in oenology, viticulture, and wine business studies takes place in the South Australian capital city of Adelaide at the Waite and North Terrace campuses. At the Waite Campus, students undertake their winemaking in the multi-million-dollar Hickinbotham Roseworthy Wine Science Laboratory owned by the University of Adelaide. They also have access to collaborating partners in the Wine Innovation Cluster located on the Waite Campus that includes the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (csiro) Plant Industry, the australian wine research institute (AWRI), and the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), all of them having established a considerable international reputation for research in viticulture and oenology.

Answer 136

Australia’s northern state appointed a Minister for Wine in 2004, although this move did not survive a change of government. The Queensland College of Wine Tourism remains a serious state asset, however. The industry has grown slowly since its early-20th-century growth spurt, with 148 wine producers at the end of 2013. The senior region, the Granite Belt, supports 50 producers. Humidity and summer rainfall are less of an issue than spring frost, for this is a high elevation (700 m to 1,000 m) inland region with warm days and cold nights. Its principal white varieties are (in order of size) Chardonnay, Semillon, and Sauvignon Blanc (and 14 others), the red varieties Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot (likewise 14 others). The varietal pattern tells one that this is a normal region in climatic terms, with a two-thirds red, one-third white wine ratio. The Strange Bird marketing initiative encouraged planting of Spanish and Italian varieties (many producers are of Italian descent) and warm-climate alternative varieties are expected to be increasingly important. The state’s largest winery, Sirromet, has its 200 ha/494 acres of vineyards here, although its high-tech 1,000-tonne winery is on the coast south of Brisbane. It and several smaller wineries (most under 100 tonnes) have made wines which have won gold medals at home and abroad and are taken increasingly seriously. South Burnett was the first region to gain formal recognition as a geographical indication. One large winery with 220 ha of plantings, Clovely Estate, and a crush capacity of 1,000 tonnes, makes wines of genuine quality. Another 70 or so wineries are scattered along the Queensland coast and hillsides; although here the focus is fairly and squarely on the general lifestyle tourist trade, there are more than a few wineries producing creditable wine as well as providing a host of scenic and other attractions. Two regions, the Scenic Rim, west of Ipswich, and Somerset Valley, north west of Brisbane, continue to expand with a range of varietally suited vineyards and growing cellar-door trade. In the far western Darling Downs, Riversands Wines survived floods in both 2011 and 2012 but the floods drove Romavilla, the state’s oldest wine property, which had traded continuously since 1863, out of business.

Answer 137

The first established wine region in the extreme south of queensland, Australia, cooled by its high elevation. Of the 46 producers, Golden Grove Estate, Symphony Hill, Sirromet, Robert Channon, and the tiny Boireann can produce wines of international quality.

Answer 138

On wine production, marketing, and even distribution is difficult to overestimate. When the chips are finally counted, Australia will be credited with having had an enormous influence on the wine world of the late 20th century. Its viticulturists (notably the viticulture editor of this book) pioneered sophisticated canopy management techniques and all sorts of tricks such as niceties of irrigation (see partial rootzone drying) and hi-tech soil mapping. Australia’s winemakers travelled the world—especially the northern hemisphere where the harvest conveniently takes place during the southern hemisphere lull—quietly infiltrating all manner of wineries with Australian technology, obsession with hygiene, and record water usage (see flying winemakers). One of their distinguishing marks is their commitment to long hours, ignoring weekends and evenings, at the critical periods during and immediately after harvest. Graduates of oenology and viticulture courses at Australian universities such as adelaide and charles sturt university are now dispersed around the world, and the australian wine research institute (AWRI) is increasingly recognized as one of the most important, and practical, forces in academe. It is significant that the world’s largest and canniest wine company, E & J gallo of California, deliberately recruited an Australian to lead its wine research department into the new millennium. Australia overtook France to be most important exporter of wine to the UK, one of the world’s most significant wine importers, at the beginning of the century, and went on to perform the same trick in the US, but Australian wine was this popular only temporarily with Americans. The spectacular success of yellow tail tarnished its image so that it came to be dismissively associated with ‘critter brands’. Such was Australia’s late-20th-century success at developing and selling brands to suit the modern international marketplace that for many years it was seen as a model even by such experienced wine exporters as the French. Alliances between Australian companies and global players in the drinks trade have been a notable feature of the globalization of the wine trade (see australia—Wine trade organization).

Answer 139

Term coined by English wine merchant Tony laithwaite for a team of young Australian winemakers he hired to work the 1987 vintage in French co-operative wineries. The idea was to apply Australian hard work and technological expertise to inexpensive grapes, thereby producing a unique range of wines for his mail-order wine business. The scheme originally depended on the fact that australia has a substantial number of highly trained winemakers (see academe) who are relatively idle during harvest time in the northern hemisphere, where most of the world’s wine is made. This sort of bought-in oenology initially worked best in areas with a considerable quantity of relatively inexpensive grapes but whose technical potential was yet to be realized. It thus excluded the classic wine regions and much of the new world but decisively included southern France, much of Italy (especially Puglia and Sicily), and Iberia, eastern Europe, some of the more open-minded South African wineries, and South America. The concept was such a success that it was much imitated and developed into a phenomenon with a long-term impact on winemaking techniques and wine styles all over the world (see globalization) in the 1990s, although the marked increase in local oenological training and skills has made the phenomenon less common. By the late 1990s, several teams of itinerant winemakers had developed from permanent bases in both France and Britain. But in general hundreds of career flying winemakers have been replaced by much smaller numbers of recent oenology graduates who combine travelling with work experience in cellars and vineyards around the world before finding their vocational location or returning home. information technology has enabled virtual winemaking from a distance of several time zones and many thousands of miles. By the 21st century, the winemaker who had only ever made wine in a single location was almost the exception.

Answer 140

Term which should according to eu labelling law be applied to wines made in Australia from ‘fresh ripe grapes of which a significant proportion have been desiccated under natural conditions in a manner favouring the concentration of sugars in the berries’. In South Africa, the term refers to a lighter style of dessert wine harvested at a minimum of 22 ºBalling and with at least 11% alcohol. If the residual sugar is less than 20 g/l, the label must indicate whether the wine is extra dry, dry, semi-sweet, or sweet.

Answer 141

Australian term for sweet, usually fortified, wines. Typical examples are the topaques and muscats of rutherglen and Glenrowan in North East victoria.

Answer 142

One of Australia’s foremost research and teaching institutions for grape-growers and winemakers. Courses started in 1976 within the Riverina College of Advanced Education, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales (NSW) to satisfy the need, within the rapidly growing wine industry, for a teaching institution in addition to roseworthy. In 1989, the College combined with other regional teaching institutions in NSW to form Charles Sturt University (CSU). The School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences offers Bachelor of Wine Science and Bachelor of Viticulture degrees in either viticulture or wine science over three years full-time on campus or six years by distance education (DE). Initially a controversial option for the wine industry, DE is now the predominant means of learning, allowing students to continue in their current profession while studying. There is also a shorter Associate Degree in Wine Science (Winegrowing) as a four-year exit point from the longer Bachelor of Wine Business. The Master of Viticulture and Oenology has full-time and DE options and requires a research dissertation. CSU also offers its degrees through partner institutions in New Zealand and elsewhere in Australia. In 1997, CSU joined the NSW Government’s Department of Primary Industries and the NSW Wine Industry Association to form the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, an alliance that conducts research and offers extension services to assist the wine industry in applying best practice.

Answer 143

Term coined in new zealand for a small winery established and run, typically by an educated young to middle-aged couple who have access to funds generated by another career, more for its bucolic appeal than as a strictly commercial proposition.

Answer 144

Official ‘super zone’ which takes in all relevant wine regions in queensland, new south wales, victoria, and south australia, used for multi-region, inexpensive blended wines constituting a significant proportion of all wine exported from Australia.

Answer 145

In new south wales, comprising the Murray Darling, Perricoota, Riverina, and Swan Hill regions.

Answer 146

Large Australian wine region straddling the Darling River and both sides of the Murray River in victoria and new south wales. While totally dependent on irrigation (the soils have little water-holding capacity and there is negligible growing season rainfall) and high yields of low-cost grapes, international competition is leading to higher standards of fruit quality being demanded by the big companies which purchase the massive annual grape production.

Answer 147

Australian wine region on the Murray River, partly in victoria and partly in new south wales.

Answer 148

Australia’s most populous state, consumes far more wine than it produces, but its wine geography is developing rapidly. The Hunter Valley (now an official wine zone), 130 km/80 miles north of Sydney, has always had a special hold on the affections (and wallets) of Sydneysiders. It is also one of the internationally known regions, notwithstanding its relatively small contribution (less than 3%) to the country’s total crush, and its perverse climate. That climate is abnormally hot for a fine wine district, although the heat is partially offset by high humidity, by afternoon cloud cover, and by substantial rainfall during the growing season—less beneficially in the years in which most of the rain falls during harvest. Out of this climatic witches’ brew comes exceptionally long-lived dry sémillon, the best peaking somewhere between ten and 20 years of age and assuming a honeyed, buttery, nutty flavour, and texture which suggests it has been fermented or matured in oak, when (traditionally) none was used. Most remarkable is the alcoholic strength, often as low as 10%. Since 1970, chardonnay also has proved its worth: Australia’s first Chardonnays of note were made in the Hunter Valley by Tyrrell’s. Here the lifespan is usually shorter, but there are exceptions. Whether young or old, Hunter Chardonnays are generous and soft, with peachy fruit and considerable viscosity. shiraz was the traditional red counterpart to Semillon in the Hunter, making extremely distinctive, moderately tannic, and long-lived wines with earth and tar overtones, sometimes described as having the aroma of a sweaty saddle after a hard day’s ride. At 20 to 30 years of age, the best acquire a silky sheen to their texture and move eerily close to wines of similar age from the rhône Valley in south east France. cabernet sauvignon is another relatively new arrival, planted for the first time since the 19th century at Lake’s Folly winery in 1963. By and large, Hunter Valley wines tend to be more regional than varietal in their statement, a tendency which becomes more marked with age. Riesling, Sauvignon Blanc, and Pinot Noir are among prominent varieties which have been tried and found unsuited to the climate and terroir. verdelho has made a remarkable comeback (highly regarded in the 19th century, then all but forgotten) as a soft, flavoursome wine requiring neither oak nor patience to show its wares. Overall, the Hunter Valley produces better white wines than it does red, with Semillon its one unique contribution. If one is to differentiate the Upper Hunter, a separate viticultural subregion well to the north, from the Lower Hunter, the bias towards white wine becomes more acute in the former. Rosemount once enjoyed acclaim for its Upper Hunter Chardonnay, although the company all but abandoned the district in the 21st century. Nowhere in Australia is the rate of change and the pace of growth more apparent than it is in New South Wales. The development of viticulture along the entire length of the western (or inland) side of the Great Dividing Range could not have been foreseen at the start of the 1990s, but from the end of the 20th century it has been making a significant contribution to the national crush. The principal zones are the Central Ranges Zone and the Southern New South Wales Zone, providing two and a half times as much wine as the Hunter Valley. The former takes in the regions of Mudgee, Orange, and Cowra; the latter takes in the regions of Hilltops, Canberra District, Gundagai, and Tumbarumba. Of these, Mudgee is by far the oldest, with an unbroken history of viticulture and winemaking stretching back to 1858. It is first and foremost red wine country, however well the ubiquitous Chardonnay does here. Indeed, Mudgee was the source of a precious virus-free clone of Chardonnay almost certainly brought to Australia in the early 19th century. As with the Hunter Valley, Mudgee has never been attacked by phylloxera. The climate is as hot as that of the Hunter Valley, but the summer rainfall is significantly lower, and it is rare for harvest rain seriously to interrupt proceedings. The red wines—Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon—are deeply coloured and intensely flavoured, and are ideal blend components for the products of the Hunter Valley’s frequent wet vintages. Both pernod ricard and treasury wine estates have largely abandoned Mudgee, and the region’s biggest winery, Robert Oatley Vineyards, has also scaled back its Mudgee brands. As a result of all this, the vineyard area has declined. elevation is as important as latitude in shaping the climate (and the ensuing wine style) of the regions south down the Great Dividing range to Orange. With most of its vineyards established on hillsides forming part of the extinct volcano Mount Canobolas at elevations of between 600 and 1,000 m, Orange is the coolest of these regions (apart from the southern outpost of Tumbarumba in the Australian Alps). Zesty, lively Chardonnay, some of Australia’s best Sauvignon Blanc, and midweight Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Shiraz with clearly articulated varietal character are the order of the day. Here, as in the Hilltops region (which produces wines of slightly fuller style and weight), warm but not excessively hot summer days and cold nights are followed by a cool, dry autumn which assists in the slow ripening and relatively late harvest dates. McWilliam's has thrown its lot in with the Hilltops region for reds and Tumbarumba for whites; indeed, many small producers in other New South Wales regions are either growing or sourcing white grapes from Tumbarumba. Canberra District wineries are mostly small, clustered just outside the border of the Australian Capital Territory, but rely heavily on tourist (and local resident) trade to promote cellar-door sales. The climate is not dissimilar to that of Orange and Hilltops: strongly continental with warm to hot days, cold nights, and a dry summer. Riesling, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Shiraz, and Viognier need vineyard site selection, but with appropriate matching can be truly excellent. Cowra (and nearby Canowindra) is significantly warmer, basically because the vineyards are at a lower elevation. Here broad acre farming is made easy by the flat plains, and yields (with the aid of irrigation, of course) are substantial. Softly fleshy Chardonnay is the mainstay, with soft Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, and Merlot seldom achieving enough concentration and structure to match the quality of Chardonnay. The Big Rivers Zone, encompassing Riverina, Perricoota, and the New South Wales side of the Murray Darling and Swan Hill regions, which it shares with Victoria (they fall on both sides of the Murray River, the border between the two states), produces 75% of the state’s grape crush. Riverina (sometimes called the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, or MIA) is centred around Griffith 450 km/275 miles south west of Sydney. With the notable exception of botrytized Semillon (made in a sauternes style), the wines are on a par with those produced in the Perricoota, Murray Darling, and Lower Murray regions. Replanting in the late 1990s and early 2000s put increasing focus on Chardonnay, Shiraz, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon, while Tempranillo and Italian varieties such as Pinot Grigio, Vermentino, Fiano, Sangiovese, and Barbera are the newest arrivals. Substantial quantities of muscat gordo blanco and the multipurpose sultana are still harvested. High yields are sought, and under normal conditions Chardonnay is the best variety. It takes a cool year for the red varieties to rise above pedestrian quality. Overall the wines reflect the very warm climate and the quasi-hydroponic growing regimes. The technical excellence of the wineries assures clean, fault-free, mildly fruity wines well suited to the drinker of cask wine (in boxes), and to the requirements of overseas bulk markets such as the own brands of the British supermarket chains.

Answer 149

Major Australian wine region on the Murrumbidgee River in southern new south wales.The base of McWilliam’s, De Bortoli, and Casella, of yellow tail fame. Griffith is its main town. There may be only 20 producers, but the volumes are very substantial. Most wines made here are described coyly as coming from South Eastern Australia.

Answer 150

Australian zone in new south wales comprising the Cowra, Mudgee, and Orange regions.

Answer 151

Well-established warm Australian wine region, best suited to Chardonnays, in new south wales. The accent is more on yield than on quality, and most of the production goes to large wineries as a blend component in lower-priced varietal or generic wine styles.

Answer 152

Relatively isolated and well-defined wine region in new south wales, associated with generous, smooth reds based on the ubiquitous Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz. Mudgee was a pioneer of Italian varieties in Australia and they are increasingly grown. There are still almost 40 producers but the total area under vine is shrinking.

Answer 153

Cool, high-elevation, promising Australian wine region in one of the cooler parts of new south wales.

Answer 154

Historic new south wales wine zone within striking distance of Sydney in which Hunter is a region and Broke Fordwich, Pokolbin, and Upper Hunter are subregions, with other subregions pending. There were 135 producers in 2014.

Answer 155

the capital of australia, is ringed by almost 40 wineries which together constitute a wine region called the Canberra District, even if, because freeholds are not granted in the Australian Capital Territory itself, they are all, bar one, over the border in the Southern New South Wales Zone. There is considerable site climate diversity due to variations in elevation from 500 m to 800 m (1,640–2,625 ft). Thus Riesling, Viognier, Marsanne, Semillon/Sauvignon Blanc blends, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Shiraz/Viognier (Clonakilla the star performer), and Cabernet blends can and do prosper in the correct site. Overall wine quality has improved markedly since the early 1990s.

Answer 156

Third most important wine state in australia in terms of volume of wine produced. From its nadir in the mid 1950s, when there were fewer than 30 wineries in operation, Victoria has recovered to the point where its viticultural map once again resembles that of the 19th century, populated by almost 800 wine producers, more than any other state. Hubert de Castella came to Victoria in 1854 from his native Switzerland, and was a leading figure in the golden age of Victorian viticulture up to 1890 (when it produced half the wine made in Australia). He wrote several books, the most famous entitled John Bull’s Vineyard, a eulogy suggesting Victoria could supply England with all the wine it might ever need. Instead, a combination of phylloxera, changing land use, changing consumption patterns, the removal of inter-state duties, and the First World War saw the end of the hundreds of vineyards and wineries spread across the very cool southern half of the state. What is now the North East Victoria Zone, with Rutherglen as its epicentre, became the focus of winemaking, producing a range of fortified and red table wines, some of the latter almost indistinguishable from some of the former. Foremost among the former are the super-sweet topaques and muscats, fortified wines of unique style and extraordinary concentration of flavour. Rutherglen and Glenrowan also produce massively rich, full-bodied dry reds (from mainly Shiraz and Durif), and a range of other, less convincing, table wines, but with their very warm summer and autumn days (and cold nights) they are best suited to fortified wines. The North East Victoria Zone is currently divided into five regions: Rutherglen, Glenrowan, King Valley, Alpine Valleys, and Beechworth, although there was a move in the mid 2000s to excise parts of the King Valley and create a new region called Whitlands High Plateau. Alpine Valleys and Beechworth provide a total contrast to Rutherglen and Glenrowan. Their elevation creates a significantly cooler climate eminently suited to table wines, albeit with a wide spectrum of varieties. King Valley is an incubator for varietal wines of every hue and shape: Prosecco (glera), arneis, verduzzo, graciano, marzemino, mondeuse, petit manseng, sagrantino, saperavi, and tannat. The Port Phillip Zone has five regions clustered around Melbourne: Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, Geelong, Sunbury, and Macedon Ranges. Over 310 wineries here enjoy a range of climatic conditions all cooler than those of Bordeaux, variously cooled by elevation or maritime influences. Pinot Noir and Chardonnay are the dominant varieties, capable of producing wines of world class, with the Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula, Geelong and the southern part of Gippsland leading the way. Shiraz is sometimes seen as a newcomer in Victoria, but Craiglee (at Sunbury) made superb Shiraz evidenced by a cache of 1872 discovered almost 100 years later buried in the then defunct winery. Yeringberg removed its Shiraz in 1981 because it didn’t sell as well as its other wines (and has since replanted it), while Yarra Yering has been producing its No. 2 Dry red for over 40 years, quietly using a little viognier. Shiraz–Viognier is the new star, with Geelong, and the Yarra Valley (Yering Station) seen as leaders. With appropriate vineyard site selection, and warmer rather than cooler vintages, both Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot can be superb. Pinot Gris has become extremely significant in many Victorian wine regions. Heathcote is the darling of the Central Victoria Zone, with its ancient (500 million-year-old Cambrian) soils, decompressed igneous greenstone which has become a vivid red-brown with age. The temperate climate and soil combination is producing some of Australia’s most striking Shiraz, deeply coloured and velvety rich, albeit with the high alcohol (14% to 15.5%) levels necessary for full sensory ripeness. Bendigo, which once included Heathcote, is likewise red wine country, with Cabernet Sauvignon also excellent. The Goulburn Valley is the oldest Victorian region with a continuous history of viticulture thanks to Tahbilk (formerly Chateau Tahbilk), which still makes an icon Shiraz exclusively from vines planted in 1860. Marsanne grows alongside Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and, of course, the ever-present Chardonnay. The newcomers are Roussanne and Viognier. The Upper Goulburn and Strathbogie Ranges are paired in much the same way as the Alpine Valleys and Beechworth. Here elevation provides a cooler climatic background, but not cool enough in the Strathbogie Ranges to prevent generous flavours and mouthfeel in the red wines. Riesling, Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, and Viognier are the dominant white varieties. The Pyrenees (quaintly named, for the slopes are gentle and far from dramatic) on the eastern side, abutting the Grampians (with Great Western registered as a subregion in 2007) continue the red wine dominance, this time in the Western Victoria Zone. The Pyrenees on the eastern side can provide Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon every bit as sumptuous as that of Heathcote or Bendigo, but as you move west into the Grampians, the subtly cooler climate yields wines with more elegance and finesse, pepper, spice, and eucalypt mint along with the vibrant red fruit flavours. The sparsely populated Henty in the far south west is dramatically cooler; indeed on some criteria it is the coolest region on the Australian mainland. Ultra-fine and intense Riesling, Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc, and steely, elegant Chardonnays are the mainstays, but micro-quantities of magnificent Pinot Noir have emerged on occasion. North West Victoria Zone takes in the Murray Darling and Swan Hill regions on the Murray River as it meanders for 500 km/305 miles marking the border between New South Wales and Victoria before moving through South Australia’s Riverland. The story is no different: modified hydroponics in desert sand with historically unlimited water provide sky-high yields of at times surprisingly good quality grapes. But recent droughts have encouraged both more effective water usage and an increase in Mediterranean vine varieties suitable for dry climates. The focal point is Lindemans’ Karadoc winery, the eastern states’ winemaking, bottling, and packaging centre for treasury wine estates.

Answer 157

Zone within the Australian state of victoria comprising the Bendigo, Goulburn Valley, Heathcote, Strathbogie Ranges, and Upper Goulburn regions.

Answer 158

Long-established temperate wine region with 24 producers in all in Australia’s Central victoria Zone). Nagambie Lakes is a subregion with Tahbilk and Mitchelton its leading wineries.

Answer 159

Exciting (Shiraz) Australian wine region, once part of Bendigo, victoria. Jasper Hill is the leading winery; from the northern Rhône, Alain Graillot and chapoutier were among the growing roster of producers, some 55-strong by 2014.

Answer 160

Small island state to the cool south of australia, with most of its vineyards clustered round Launceston in the north or Hobart in the south of the island and on the east coast around Bicheno. So far there has been no move to seek registration of any regions, or even zones, notwithstanding the diversity of climate noted below. The creation of two zones, one north and one south, would be a logical first step, the boundary easy to draw. Regions could then follow once they gained the sufficient critical mass of 500 tonnes. In volume terms, the Tasmanian wine industry is as tiny as its potential is large. The island state has 1,320 ha/3,260 acres of planted vineyards, which is less than 1% of Australia’s total, but Tasmania has for several years been the one Australian wine region where demand for grapes outstrips supply. It crushed a total of 7,388 tonnes of grapes in 2010, a figure virtually unchanged since 2004. Outside observers not only habitually exaggerate the extent of Tasmania’s viticulture, but are oblivious to the diversity of terroir and climate in the island’s extremely complex geography. There are sites which are both warmer and very much drier than southern Victoria (for example the Coal River/Richmond region in the east of Hobart, and, in terms of warmth, the Tamar Valley north of Launceston) and there are sites cooler and wetter (for example Pipers River, east of Launceston). The one clear pattern is that Pinot Noir finds itself at home in all parts of the state, with the qualified exception of parts of the Tamar River. Zinfandel was once grown successfully at the Coal River; the colour and extract of the Tamar River red wines is extraordinary, hinting misleadingly at a warm to very warm climate. The island’s major producers have hitched their future to such cool-climate varieties as Riesling, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir (the latter two for both table and sparkling wine use). However, the apparent effect of climate change—or at least, some warm vintages—has led to some impressive merlot, cabernet sauvignon, and shiraz coming from the warmer sites of the Tamar River and from the Coal River, where Domaine A struts its stuff. Tasmania has seen many changes in recent years. After selling Tamar Ridge to Gunns Limited, Joe Chromy bought another vineyard and created his third wine company, Josef Chromy Wines, at Relbia in 2004. Heemskerk was relaunched as treasury wine estates’ key Tasmanian brand. Belgian-owned Kreglinger took control of Pipers Brook in 2001, the same year that Hardys developed the Bay of Fires brand. Andrew Pirie, who abruptly left Pipers Brook in 2003, launched his new Apogee brand in 2013. Andrew Hood sold Wellington Wines to the principals of organic producer Frogmore Creek in 2003. Art collector and professional gambler David Walsh, who bought Moorilla Estate in 1995, has reinvented it with a new winery, excellent brewery, restaurant, and the internationally celebrated MONA art museum. The Hill Smith family of Yalumba bought Dalrymple in 2007, having bought Jansz some years earlier. Brown Brothers bought Tamar Ridge from Gunns in 2010 and immediately became the biggest single player in the state. Shaw + Smith bought Tolpuddle Vineyard in 2011. Over this period, Tasmania has emerged as a serious producer of the country’s finest sparkling wines as well as high-level Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, and Riesling table wines. While some larger vineyards have been established, most of the 112 producers remain tiny. Pinot Noir has improved out of all recognition and is being made in larger volumes; the distinctively elegant Riesling and Chardonnay, with high natural acidity, are increasingly admired. Hardys, Australia’s pre-eminent sparkling winemaker (Arras, Sir James, etc.), now sources all of its ultra-premium base wine from the island. The quality of Tasmanian wine has never been in dispute, and will presumably only improve as vine age increases, and the terroir/variety dating game becomes even more sophisticated.

Answer 161

In south australia, has a single but very important region, the riverland.

Answer 162

The most productive wine region in australia, with 76 producers and a sprawl of vineyards irrigated by the River Murray mainly in the state of south australia. The same market forces as described in murray darling are forcing grape growers to improve the quality, and also to ensure they have the right varietal mix in an ever-changing market place. Petit Verdot is an established speciality and hot-climate Italian varieties such as Vermentino, Fiano, Montepulciano, and Nero d’Avola are catching on. South Eastern Australia is the catch-all description usually found on labels.

Answer 163

Wine zone in the Australian state of victoria incorporating the wine regions of Alpine Valleys, Beechworth, Glenrowan, King Valley, and Rutherglen.

Answer 164

Historic wine region in north east victoria zone, famous for its fortified, extremely sweet topaque and muscat. There were 23 producers in 2014.

Answer 165

Australian wine zone surrounding Melbourne, victoria, and encompassing the Geelong, Macedon Ranges, Mornington Peninsula, Sunbury, and Yarra Valley regions.

Answer 166

Cool wine region in the Port Phillip Zone of the Australian state of victoria that is especially good for complex, intense Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Shiraz also does well. Most of the 45 producers are small, family-owned and operated.

Answer 167

Maritime, cool-climate wine region south east of Melbourne in the Australian state of victoria and a summer playground for rich and poor alike. Site climate and soil type vary widely across this long east–west peninsula, and the differences are apparent in the wine styles from a total of 76 producers.

Answer 168

Historic Australian wine region just north east of Melbourne, victoria, that is cool in both senses of the word. Its 120 producers make internationally recognized Chardonnay and Pinot Noir and, increasingly, Shiraz as well as iconic Cabernet blends including Mount Mary Quintet, Yarra Yering Dry Red No 1, and Yeringberg. Ever-changing vistas from hillsides of valley floor make it a thriving centre for wine tourism. Melbourne is but one hour away.

Answer 169

Comprises Grampians, Henty, and Pyrenees regions in Australia.

Answer 170

temperate Australian wine region formerly known as Great Western in the Western Victoria Zone (see victoria). Great Western is now a subregion of Grampians. Top-class Shiraz is produced here and senior wineries among the total of 19 are Bests and Seppelt, both established in the 1860s.

Answer 171

The wine state in australia, responsible for 45 to 50% of the annual crush. This share may have fallen from the 75% of the 1940s and 1950s, but the state still dominates the country’s wine output. Vine-growing and winemaking are major contributors to South Australia’s gross domestic production, yet they occupy only a small percentage of the state’s vast land mass. Vine-growing is concentrated in the south eastern corner, much of it within an hour’s drive of the capital Adelaide. The two outposts are the Riverland sprawling along the Murray river (the Lower Murray Zone); and Coonawarra and nearby Padthaway 325 km/200 miles south east of Adelaide, not far from the border with victoria (the Limestone Coast Zone).

Answer 172

The barossa valley, an hour north of Adelaide, is Australia’s best-known wine region with 140 producers. To this day, the Germanic influence of its 19th-century Silesian immigrants is everywhere to be seen—in the town names, the Lutheran churches, the stone buildings, and in the names of the leading families. The once-dominant Riesling has bowed to the inevitable as Chardonnay (and also Semillon) has swept past it, although part of the change has come about as a consequence of Riesling’s move to the Eden Valley, Clare Valley, and (less importantly in absolute terms), the Adelaide Hills. This shift reflects two things: first, the warm climate of the valley floor, more suited to red wine production; second, a fundamental reappraisal of the function of the Barossa Valley proper. For decades vine plantings shrank while production soared, not because of increased yields, but because the Barossa Valley wineries process a major part of the grapes grown in the Riverland, Coonawarra, Padthaway, McLaren Vale, and Langhorne Creek. Most of Australia’s largest companies are based here. The presence of penfolds, and the creation of its masterwork Grange, embody the glory of the Barossa Valley: substantial plantings of Shiraz dating as far back as 1860, dry farmed (no irrigation) and bush trained, often yielding as little as 16 hl/ha (1 tonne/acre) of inky, dark purple essence.

Answer 173

Clare Valley, just to the north west of the Barossa Valley, but joined with the Adelaide Hills in the Mount Lofty Ranges Zone, is one of the unspoilt jewels of South Australia. The narrow, twisting folds of the hills provide an attractive intimacy. Like the Barossa Valley, it is steeped in history, with splendid stone buildings and wineries. Its strongly continental climate, with warm days but cool to cold nights in summer, produces outstanding Riesling, a fragrant yet steely wine which ages superbly, taking on the aroma of lightly browned toast with a twist of lime as it ages. Most of the 43 wineries are small; almost all produce Riesling, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon, the red wines being intensely coloured, deeply flavoured, and long lived, often with a patina of eucalypt mint. malbec also flourishes here, used as a blend component with Cabernet Sauvignon (sometimes with a dash of Shiraz thrown in for good measure).

Answer 174

In spite of its name, is a range of hills adjacent to the Barossa Valley proper, approximately 200 m/656 ft higher than the Barossa floor at 400–450 m and commensurately cooler. The soils are also different: poor, quartz-based podsols. The history is as old as the Barossa floor, as Joseph Gilbert planted the original Pewsey Vale in 1947. The cooler climate has led to a focus on white varieties, especially lime-juicy and long-lived Riesling, which is outstanding here, but reds can also excel—witness Henschke Hill of Grace and Mount Edelstone Shirazes. Shiraz is more spicy and elegant than on the Barossa floor with finer tannins and generally lower alcohol.

Answer 175

Has rapidly become one of South Australia’s most important fine-wine regions. Grapes have been grown there as long as anywhere in the state but plantings took off in the 1980s when Petaluma and others made major commitments, sniffing the wind, and realizing that lighter table and sparkling wines were the future. Plantings were further encouraged in the 1990s by its proximity to Adelaide (30 minutes by car) and by the second decade of this century there was an oversupply of grapes which depressed prices and profitability. Major players include Henschke, The Lane, Nepenthe, and Shaw + Smith. Contrary to the pioneers’ plans, Sauvignon Blanc and Shiraz are the most notable varieties, together with the more-predictably successful Chardonnay.

Answer 176

45 minutes due south of Adelaide, is often called the home of the small winery. These wineries represent a mixture of the old and the new, thus reflecting the dynamics which have operated here no less than in the Barossa Valley. At the northern end, urban sprawl has swallowed up many once-substantial vineyards, and encircles the few remaining plantings at Reynella. However, with one important qualification, the southern end of the fashionably cool and increasingly important Adelaide Hills to the east, the open plains of McLaren Vale, and the hills of the Fleurieu Peninsula offer abundant suitable land for future plantings. The qualification is the availability of increasingly scarce water, and ever-more stringent controls on the use of surface water (by dams), artesian water (by bores), and river water. Mclaren Vale is a strongly maritime-influenced region, with considerable variation in mesoclimate. Once famous for its supposedly iron-rich red wines exported to England under the Emu and Glenloth labels and prescribed by (surely enlightened) physicians around the turn of the century as tonics, the emphasis in the 1970s and 1980s turned to its melon-and tropical fruit-tinged Chardonnay, pungent gooseberry Sauvignon Blanc, and full-flavoured Semillon. But with the resurgence of the red wine market, attention has once again focused on its generous, gutsy red wines. Here the long-forgotten virtues of its dryland Grenache have been rediscovered; whether used to make a single varietal red wine, or blended with Shiraz, many consider it Australia’s best example of Rhône-style red. The high quality of the grapes, and hence the wines, is better understood by the industry than by the public, and (even more with neighbour langhorne creek) much of the production ends up in multi-regional blended wines, the labels of which may or may not show the composition of that blend. Langhorne Creek is the principal source of Jacob’s Creek and these two regions between them account for 20% of the state’s output.

Answer 177

The limestone coast zone in the far south east of the state includes the regions of growing importance: Mount Benson, Robe, Wrattonbully, Coonawarra, and Padthaway. coonawarra was traditionally recognized as producing Australia’s finest Cabernet Sauvignon while padthaway grows very serviceable, mid-priced Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, and Shiraz. Both are cool regions (Coonawarra is the cooler of the two) with considerable limestone (terra rossa in Coonawarra), and an extensive underground water-table. While vines were first planted in Coonawarra in 1890 (by John Riddoch), for all practical purposes both regions date from the early 1960s. This explains why both areas are exclusively planted to premium grape varieties, and why the major wine companies are the dominant landholders (there are six wineries in Padthaway, more than 40 in Coonawarra). After two decades of darkness in the 1980s and 1990s, when the focus was on the cost of growing grapes and not on maximizing their quality, there has been a major turnaround in the approach of the major companies. Cabernet Sauvignon, the flagbearer, accounts for 60% of the 5,700 ha under vine; white grapes just 10%.

Answer 178

Had a face lift in 2004 with the formation of the Tapanappa joint venture between Brian Croser, Jean-Michel Cazes (of Ch Lynch Bages in Pauillac), and the parent company of Champagne Bollinger (now an all-Australian enterprise). It purchased the original Koppamurra Vineyard, from which it produces estate-based wines, setting a formula for future ventures elsewhere.

Answer 179

Is cooler, with sand and limestone interspersed, and seems destined to produce wines of greater elegance but less weight and structure.

Answer 180

The fleurieu zone, as well as being home to McLaren Vale and Langhorne Creek, takes in the exotic kangaroo island, plus currency creek, and southern fleurieu. All are highly maritime, and hence cooler than McLaren Vale. Kangaroo Island is one of the (largely) undiscovered nature paradises of Australia, viticulture as yet of small compass. Southern Fleurieu is also largely unspoilt and of considerable beauty.

Answer 181

Finally, there is the riverland, the South Australian portion stretching along the mighty Murray River from Waikerie to Renmark, producing 59% of South Australia’s total crush and 27% of the nation’s. The continuing increase in premium grape plantings, and the decline in lesser or multipurpose varieties, is nowhere more evident than in the fact that Chardonnay, Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot accounted for 71% of total Riverland plantings by 2012, the once-dominant Muscat Gordo Blanco and Sultana for well under 10%.

Answer 182

Australian super zone encompassing the mount lofty ranges zone, fleurieu zone, and barossa zone, stretching from clare valley in the north to the foot of the Fleurieu Peninsula, plus the gaps in between; hence Penfolds Magill Estate is a notable resident. Infrequently used as a geographical indication on wine labels.

Answer 183

Is a catch-all term that is intended to accommodate the various approaches to geographical delimitation across the globe. It encompasses those straightforward systems typical of new world countries that control only the origin of the grapes, as well as the European controlled appellation model that also regulates conditions of production such as variety and yield. GIs can vary greatly in size and consequently in the promise of specificity that they convey. South Eastern Australia and France’s Pays d’Oc are immense, covering many thousands of hectares, whereas the smallest, such as the Burgundy grands crus, cover just a few hectares. But in every case, they should be more than a mere indication of source. They must signify a link between a place and the characteristics of the wines that are produced there. Geographical indications were recognized as a special form of intellectual property in 1994 through the WTO’s Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property. The agreement defines a GI as ‘an indication that identifies a good as originating in the territory of a country, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, or reputation, or other characteristic, of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin’. This definition applies not only to wine but to all products. Every one of the 158 member countries of the WTO is required to provide a means for the legal protection of GIs against misuse. Wines and spirits have a higher level of protection than other products but it would be fair to say that each country interprets its obligations differently, resulting in a diverse range of approaches to GI protection as well as a reasonable amount of controversy. Many countries have incorporated the term ‘geographical indication’ directly into their legislation, including Australia and China. The eu created the Protected Geographical Indication (pgi) category for wines in 2008 although this is seen as a lower guarantee of typicality than the more strictly controlled Protected Designation of Origin (pdo) category.

Answer 184

Encompasses the Adelaide Hills, Adelaide Plains, and Clare Valley wine regions in south australia.

Answer 185

Fashionable, relatively high (450–550 m/1,480–1,800 ft), cool wine region in south australia and one of Australia’s best for growing fine Sauvignon Blanc, part of the mount lofty ranges zone with clare valley. Lenswood and Piccadilly Valley are officially recognized subregions. The 90 producers are also notable for sparkling wine made from Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. In the north of the region, lower-elevation west-facing slopes produce fuller-bodied wines from Shiraz. To complicate the picture, Shiraz (sometimes married with Viognier) also flourishes in the cooler parts to produce northern Rhône Valley lookalikes. alternative varieties are increasingly grown, the main successes being Tempranillo, Nebbiolo, Pinot Gris, and Fiano.

Answer 186

Fine wine region in south australia with a strongly continental climate: warm summer days and cool nights. This combined with differences in soil, elevation, degree of slope and aspect, enables the region to produce some of Australia’s finest Riesling as well as excellent Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Malbec. While wines are sturdy and powerful, alcohol levels are generally lower than those of the Barossa Valley or McLaren Vale. There are 40 producers, of which 15 sell but do not make wine there.

Answer 187

The heart of the Australian wine industry, the most famous wine region in australia, and the one in which most wine is produced, even if a high proportion of it is shipped in from vineyards outside the valley itself. There is an increasing trend towards planting off the valley floor and on higher ground on the hillsides. On the other side of the coin, the incalculable value of the viticultural bank of Shiraz, Grenache, and Mourvèdre vineyards, up to 170 years old, dry-grown (see dryland viticulture), and ungrafted makes this a heritage area which can be neither duplicated nor replaced. According to Australia’s official wine geography, the Barossa Zone includes the Barossa Valley and Eden Valley wine regions. For more detail, see south australia.

Answer 188

Wine region (High Eden is a subregion) abutting south australia’s Barossa Valley, with high elevation, 43 producers, and a fine reputation for lime-juice-accented and long-lived riesling and elegant, medium-bodied Shiraz (Henschke’s Hill of Grace, for example).

Answer 189

In south australia encompasses the regions of Currency Creek, Kangaroo Island, Langhorne Creek, McLaren Vale, and Southern Fleurieu, where Tapanappa’s Foggy Hill vineyard is notable for Pinot Noir.

Answer 190

Productive wine region with 26 producers in south australia cooled by Lake Alexandrina and the nearby Southern Ocean. It has an unusual ability to produce large yields of medium-bodied red wines which achieve sensory ripeness (an important ingredient in Orlando Wyndham’s red jacob’s creek) in its temperate climate. Smaller wineries which limit yields on estate vineyards are producing high-quality Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and blends thereof. Verdelho and Malbec are local specialities.

Answer 191

Intensively planted, historic south australian wine region especially noted for rich reds, from 126 producers in 2014. These have a distinctive and often useful dash of dark chocolate in their makeup. More controversial is their level of alcohol: seldom less than 14.5% and sometimes in excess of 15.5%. The winemakers’ response is that they are not seeking high alcohol, simply waiting for the right flavour development.

Answer 192

Moderately cool, high-quality wine area in south australia encompassing Coonawarra, Mount Benson, Mount Gambier, Padthaway, Robe, and Wrattonbully regions. The zone is much greater in extent, with the districts of Bordertown and Penola candidates for official recognition as regions. Bordertown, the furthest north, is the warmest area (robust Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, etc.). Mount Gambier, to the extreme south, is the coolest, best suited to Pinot Noir and Chardonnay.

Answer 193

Important wine region with 43 producers in 2014 in South Australia’s Limestone Coast Zone and traditionally the most popularly revered area of australia for Cabernet Sauvignon, grown on its famous strip of terra rossa soil. Its cool, mediterranean climate is very similar to that of Bordeaux; it is slightly warmer and has less growing season rainfall, but Cabernet Sauvignon is normally picked in the second half of April (or, in Bordeaux terms, the second half of October). For more detail, see south australia.

Answer 194

A significant, moderately cool, primarily grape-growing (rather than winemaking) region in the limestone coast zone in the south east of south australia. While all the mainstream varieties are grown, and while grape quality is, as elsewhere, sensitive to yield, Shiraz is a regional speciality, and can produce long-lived wine of high quality. It has just nine producers.

Answer 195

Australia’s biggest state has the country’s most isolated wine regions in its south-west corner. Nowhere have the winds of change blown harder since 1970 than in Western Australia. In that year, more than 90% of the state’s wine was made from grapes grown in the then Swan Valley (now a subregion of the Swan District in the Greater Perth Zone); by 1980 the figure was 59%; and by 2003 it was less than 11%. The other side of the coin has been the emergence of the Margaret River and Great Southern regions spanning the far south western corner of the state. In a manner reminiscent of the Barossa Valley in South Australia, the Swan Valley, with the dubious distinction of being the hottest region in Australia, with harvest typically beginning in January, remains the production centre of much of Western Australia’s wine, largely through a single company, Houghton (part of hardys). As well as producing Houghton White Burgundy (or HWB, as it is called in Europe) from Verdelho, Chenin Blanc, and Chardonnay grown in the Swan Valley and at Gingin (just to the north), Houghton has large vineyards at Frankland in the Great Southern, and is a major purchaser of grapes throughout that region and the Margaret River. Houghton’s ultra-premium Jack Mann and Gladstones red wines from these regions are among Australia’s very best full-bodied wines based on Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz.

Answer 196

The Margaret River has grown considerably in both size and reputation since the mid 1990s. It is now recognized as the source of some of Australia’s finest Cabernet Sauvignon as well as of pungently grassy and intense Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc, more often than not blended with each other. Chardonnay is the other grape of importance, making wine which is invariably complex and often long lived. Leeuwin Estate is regarded by many as Australia’s best, Giaconda of Beechworth being the other obvious contender. Such wines, together with Margaret River’s year-round temperate climate, physical beauty, and diverse attractions from surf to woodworks make it a prime centre for wine tourism, while, 240 km/146 miles to the south of Perth, it is still at a latitude of 34 degrees south, and therefore completely reliant upon the cooling influence of the Indian Ocean.

Answer 197

With one or two exceptions such as Leeuwin Estate’s, Riesling has never succeeded in the Margaret River, but comes emphatically into its own in the far-flung, cooler, and usually more continental subregions of the Great Southern region: Porongurup, Mount Barker, and Frankland River. Here it produces crisp, tightly structured wines which evolve slowly but with grace, mirroring the slow development of the equally taut yet fragrant Cabernet Sauvignon. This is a huge and diverse region. Chardonnay and Shiraz also do well, balancing cool-climate elegance and intensity of flavour. The coastal subregions of Albany and Denmark are far more suited to Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, and (intermittently) Pinot Noir.

Answer 198

The other regions within the South West Australia Zone are of lesser importance in terms of production, and will remain so. The adjacent regions of Pemberton (north east) and Manjimup (south west) failed to agree on the name of a region which should probably have been called Pemberton/Manjimup, which has resulted in two separate, adjacent ones. This somewhat schizophrenic attitude is also reflected in the varietal wines of the regions. The distinctly cool, moderately high rainfall, and varied soils (some very fertile) caused the Pemberton pioneers to see their region as a Burgundy equivalent. In fact Merlot and Shiraz have performed as well, if not better than, Pinot Noir while Verdelho challenges Chardonnay. That challenge intensifies in Manjimup, but will likely remain undecided for a while yet.

Answer 199

The Blackwood Valley lies immediately to the north of Manjimup, taking its name from the Blackwood river. The first plantings were in 1978, and there are just as many questions about the future direction here as there are in Manjimup and Pemberton. The last region in the South West Australia Zone is Geographe, altogether more important and with a clearer focus, albeit with varied climate as one moves inland from the coast. The coastal town of Bunbury is the centre (on the north/south axis), while Capel Vale is the dominant winery. The most important of four rivers are the Collie and Ferguson, creating valleys as they flow to the coast, and a cross-hatch with the Darling range running north–south. Varied terroir is the order of the day, but Chardonnay, Verdelho, Semillon, and Sauvignon Blanc lead the white wines and Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Tempranillo the reds, all with flavour and attitude.

Answer 200

The hot, traditional, once-dominant wine region of western australia. Swan Valley is now a subregion fighting back from the brink of oblivion, and very dependent on tourism, although in 2014 there were still more than 40 producers.

Answer 201

Comprises the Blackwood Valley, Geographe, Great Southern, and Margaret River wine regions, not to be confused with the South East Australia Super Zone.

Answer 202

High-quality, cool climate wine region with 63 producers in 2014 in the extreme south west of western australia, including subregions Albany, Denmark, Frankland River, Mount Barker and Porongurup. Each has its own terroir and climate dictated in part by the distance from the south coast of Western Australia.

Answer 203

Most important wine region in western australia, air conditioned by the warm Indian Ocean. First-class Chardonnay (Leeuwin Estate) and Cabernet/Merlot (Cullen et al.) from a total of nearly 150 producers.

Answer 204

Red vinifera Carignan x Cabernet Sauvignon cross bred in and for california in 1936 and released in 1948. Dr H. P. Olmo of the University of California at davis (see also emerald riesling, carnelian) was attempting to combine Cabernet characteristics with Carignan productivity and heat tolerance. The slightly rustic Ruby Cabernet enjoyed a heyday in California in the 1960s and even in 2012 was still grown on more than 6,000 acres/1,482 ha, mainly in the southern san joaquin valley (though is only half as popular as the red-fleshed hybrid rubired). It is even more popular in South Africa where it was grown in 2012 on a total of 2,250 ha, mainly in hotter inland wine regions, and has also been grown quite extensively in Australia's inland regions; indeed Ruby Cabernet appeared increasingly on Australian wine labels during the country's red wine shortage of the late 1990s.

Answer 205

Name once given to several Portuguese white grape varieties, and most closely associated with the island of madeira, where the Verdelho vine became increasingly rare in the post-phylloxera era but the name was for long used to denote a medium-dry style of wine somewhere between sercial and bual levels of richness. Of the original four vinifera varieties that were traditionally grown on Madeira, Verdelho is the most planted today, with 47 ha/116 acres in 2010. Musts have moderate levels of sugar and notably high acidity. The Verdelho found on Madeira is the same as that found growing in the Azores and this Verdelho, cuttings of which were presumably picked up on one of these Atlantic islands en route to the antipodes, was extremely important in 19th-century Australia. Planted on 1,338 ha/3,305 acres in 2012, it has had notable success in vibrant, tangy, full-bodied table wines in more recent times, particularly in the Hunter valley of New South Wales, Victoria, and some of the hotter regions of Western Australia. See australia for more details. Verdelho has been planted to a very limited extent in savennières in the Loire for just as long and makes some interesting varietal wine there. It is also grown in New Zealand, California, and Argentina. A quite distinct variety once called Verdelho or Verdelho do Dão but now officially renamed Gouveio and identified as Spain’s godello, is planted on the Portuguese mainland, particularly in the Alentejo, Dão, and Douro. Verdelho Roxo is a red-berried colour mutation of Verdelho (while the now virtually extinct Verdelho Tinto of the minho is unrelated).

Answer 206

Red-brown loam or clay directly over well-drained limestone found typically in regions with a mediterranean climate. Such soils are found in southern Europe (in Spain’s La mancha, for example), North Africa, and parts of Australia. The quality of many wines made from Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz grapes grown at Coonawarra in south australia is said to owe much to the terra rossa soils there. However, similar soils are found in Australia’s inland irrigated districts, associated with much lower quality wines.

Answer 207

Of imported plant material plays an important part in international viticulture, and can put a (necessary) brake on certain aspects of its development. Like any form of agricultural quarantine, it can annoy travellers but is designed to protect farmers from the ravages which may be caused by the introduction of pests and diseases from other countries or regions (see the history of downy mildew, powdery mildew, and phylloxera). Most of the devastating pests and diseases of the vine species used commonly for wine production, vinifera, have in fact been spread from America, american vine species having developed a tolerance to these diseases which the European V. vinifera lacks. Quarantine systems for viticulture are in place at national borders, and also sometimes at regional levels. Most wine-producing countries maintain strict quarantine on vine imports in an attempt to keep out the likes of pierce’s disease, and flavescence dorée, both of which could ravage a region’s viticulture if they were to spread. Quarantine would appear less effective for flavescence dorée than for Pierce’s disease, as the former is now found in most grape-growing countries and is continuing to spread. Quarantine also works to reduce the spread of other fungal, virus, and bacterial diseases as well as insect and nematode pests which might not be lethal but may cause significant commercial damage. Licences issued for vine importation are typically restricted to a few cuttings of each lot which are subjected to disease testing. The quarantine delays can be up to two years, but diagnostic tests such as elisa developed in the 1980s have reduced this period. Some countries, for example China and Canada, do allow imports of young grafted vines but these are subject to guarantees about virus status. Nursery plants move freely around the eu with a plant passport to guarantee freedom from virus disease, but they are widely infected with trunk disease fungi not covered by the passport. Smuggling of vines is not unknown, especially by impatient producers who believe that they are disadvantaged by not having access to better varieties or clones and are tempted to resort to what are sometimes referred to as ‘suitcase clones’. Sometimes there are quarantine areas within national boundaries, such as those that exist in South Australia in an attempt to avoid the further spread of phylloxera. Some countries and regions are free of major pests or diseases. chile, for example, has remained free of phylloxera, even though it is present in Argentina just over the Andes. Increasing international competition in the wine market makes the possibility of sabotage from another region or nation by introduction of a pest or disease less fanciful. The economic health of many of the world’s viticultural regions depends on effective vine quarantine being maintained, and continuing vigilance and community support are essential.

Answer 208

Growing grapes for wine is a climatically sensitive endeavour, with narrow geographical zones providing the best production and quality characteristics. Therefore, the inherent uniqueness that wine region climates provide places the industry at greater risk from climate change than more broadly grown agricultural crops. Weather and climate present three distinct spatial/temporal scales of risks and challenges to viticulture and wine production: first, individual weather events, which are mostly short term and localized (e.g. hail, winter freezes, frost, and heavy rain); second, climate variability, which is measured on seasonal to decadal timescales and typically regionalized (e.g. drought or wet periods, warm or cold periods); third, climate change, which is recognized as long term and regional to global in scale (e.g. warming, cooling, changes in moisture regimes). In addition, one factor often influences and/or changes another—climate variability can change the frequency of individual weather events, or climate change can alter the nature of climate variability. Historically climate change has been brought about by both internal and external natural processes such as volcanic events, ocean/snow/ice dynamics, solar variation, and meteoroid impacts. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that contemporary and future climate changes have become greatly influenced by human behaviour, through changes in atmospheric composition, deforestation, desertification, and urbanization. Probably the greatest concern for future climate change comes from increasing fossil fuel consumption and rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere. While the magnitude of human influences on global climates is currently debated, the unabated use of fossil fuels and a growing population will continue to alter the Earth’s surface and atmosphere and the way they hold and distribute heat. To study climate change, scientists use empirical methods (based on observations and/or proxy data, such as tree rings), dynamic methods (based on complex three-dimensional, mathematical models of our Earth–atmosphere system), or a combination of the two. Although climate models are far from perfect representations of climate reality and are constantly scrutinized, they continue to improve as technology and knowledge increase; combined with observations, they provide the best tools for climate change studies.

Answer 209

The grapevine is one of the oldest cultivated plants and, along with the process of making wine, has resulted in a rich geographical and cultural history (see origins of viniculture). History has shown that wine-grape growing regions developed when the climate was most conducive. In addition, records of dates of harvest and yield for European viticulture have been kept for nearly a thousand years, revealing large swings in growing season temperatures and productivity. For example, Pfister’s historical research describes how during the medieval ‘Little Optimum’, roughly ad 900–1300, average temperatures were up to 1 °C/1.8 °F warmer with vineyards planted as far north as the coastal zones of the Baltic sea and southern England. Recorded harvest dates for northern Europe from the High Middle Ages (12th and 13th centuries) show that fruit was ripening in early September as compared with late September to mid October during the late 20th century, and that growing season temperatures were roughly 1.7 °C/3 ºF warmer. However, during the ‘Little Ice Age’ (14th to late 19th centuries), temperature declines were dramatic, resulting in northern vineyards being abandoned and growing seasons so short that harvesting ripe grapes even in southern Europe was difficult. Recent research by Chuine and colleagues used contemporary grape harvest dates from Burgundy to reconstruct spring-summer temperatures from 1370 to 2003. While the results indicate that temperatures as high as those reached in the warm 1990s have occurred several times in the region since 1370, the extremely warm summer of 2003 appears to have been hotter than any other year since 1370. Today our understanding of climate change and the potential effects on viticulture and wine production has become increasingly important as changing levels of greenhouse gases and alterations in Earth surface characteristics bring about changes in the Earth’s radiation balance, atmospheric circulation, and hydrologic cycle. In its latest report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated that warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and that since the middle of the 20th century, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. Observed climate change in the period 1880 to 2012 shows that globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperatures have increased 0.65–1.06 °C/1.17–1.91 ºF (see figure). However, temperature changes have not been globally uniform, with a few regions experiencing decreases, some not changing at all, and many increasing more dramatically. In addition, the warming trends have been found to be asymmetric with respect to seasonal and diurnal cycles, with greatest warming occurring during the winter and spring and at night (resulting in a smaller diurnal temperature range; see temperature variability). Averaged globally, all 13 years in the 21st century rank among the 14 warmest on record and only one year during the 20th century (1998) was warmer than 2013. Other average climate-related observations include: over the last few decades the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing mass; on average glaciers have continued to shrink worldwide; there have been decreases in snow-cover extent in the northern hemisphere and floating ice in the Arctic Ocean; global mean sea level has risen on average 19 cm over the past century; and worldwide precipitation over land has increased by 5–10%. Furthermore, changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been observed since the middle of the 20th century, including: the number of cold days and nights has decreased and the number of warm days and nights has increased on the global scale; the frequency of heatwaves has increased in large parts of North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia; some locations are showing a greater frequency of drought while other regions have seen the frequency of extreme rainfall events increase. While contemporary research shows that the impact of climate change on viticulture and wine has been less than on other crops, numerous effects associated with plant growth, fruit characteristics, and pest and disease issues (see below) have been seen in wine regions and are likely to continue in the future. Recent analyses in many wine regions worldwide have documented changes in average climate conditions that have produced warmer and longer growing and dormant periods. Growing-season temperatures in many of the best wine-producing regions in the world increased 1.3 °C/2.34 ºF during the last half of the 20th century. However, the warming was not uniform across all regions, with greater magnitudes in the western US and Europe and less warming in Chile, South Africa, and Australia. Also trends between day and night temperatures vary by region, with some seeing much more significant warming at night and others seeing more heat stress events through higher daytime temperatures. In addition to warmer growing seasons with greater heat accumulation, many of the world’s wine regions have experienced a decline in frost frequency and shifts in the timing of frosts. However, cold extremes still occur and there is some evidence that acclimation to more benign conditions can reduce growers’ readiness to protect their vineyards from such events and make the plant system more susceptible to their effects. Furthermore, warmer winters in wine regions could influence hardening potential for latent buds, ultimately affecting vine growth and productivity the next year. Grapevine phenological timing has shown strong relationships with the observed warming in wine regions, with trends ranging from 5 to 30 days earlier over numerous cultivars and locations. Changes are greatest for the timing of veraison and harvest, and interval lengths between the main phenological events have also shortened with the length of time from budbreak to bloom, bloom to veraison, or veraison to harvest dates shortening by two weeks or more. An analysis over all locations and cultivars shows that grapevine phenology has been responding by roughly 5–10 days per 1°C/1.8 ºF of warming over the last 30–50 years. With this earlier and more rapid plant growth, the potential for changes to ripening profiles and wine styles is evident. Many regions have seen trends to higher sugar and lower acidity levels that are significantly correlated with increases in temperatures. As a result of these changes in grape composition, combined with other complex consumer and economic issues (see hang time, for example), higher alcohol levels have been observed in many regions. Furthermore, research in some regions shows that harvests that occur earlier in the summer, in a warmer part of the growing season, will result in hotter fruit being harvested, leading typically to loss of flavour and aroma compounds, as well as the potential for greater fruit desiccation unless irrigation is increased. Research on climate change effects on pest and disease pressure indicates that we are likely to see increases in populations and severity, but also shifts to new areas further towards the poles with warmer winters and warmer night temperatures. See below for further examples. Soil interactions with climate, pests and disease also strongly influence yield and quality in wine. Numerous studies have shown that soil erosion, degradation, and salinity are likely to be major indirect effects of climate change on viticulture and wine production. Climate change is expected to lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more total rainfall and more frequent high-intensity rainfall events. Furthermore, a changing climate and other demands on water will increase the pressure to restrict irrigation, ultimately increasing rootzone salinity with a greater impact on wine quality over time. In addition, researchers have found that increases in carbon dioxide will cause more vegetative growth (see vigour) in grapevines and increased water use efficiency, although the increased growth is likely to come at the expense of grape quality. However, while we understand some of the issues surrounding the impact of CO2 on growing grapes, there has not been enough research to understand fully how increasing CO2 concentrations along with warmer temperatures and changes in available water relate to vine growth, phenological timing and phase lengths, yield formation, fruit ripening and composition, and, most importantly, wine quality. Finally, an important indirect effect of increased CO2 for the wine industry has also been identified: changes in the texture of oak wood may alter its suitability for wine barrel production.

Answer 210

Current climate modelling work, using a range of predictions with regard to CO2 emissions, indicates which are the largest contributors to total increases in temperatures, projects that the globally averaged surface temperature will increase 1.3–4.8 °C/2.34–8.65 ºF by the 2081–2100 period relative to what was seen globally during the 1986–2005 period (see figure). This level of change is between two and ten times greater than that which was observed during the 20th century. The projected warming will continue to exhibit interannual-to-decadal variability and will not be regionally uniform, with variation in the rate of warming and whether the warming comes from greater increases in daytime or night-time temperatures. Research suggests that growing-season temperatures will increase by 2.0 ºC/3.6 ºF by 2050, with increased seasonal temperature variability. However, the warming rates in wine regions are likely to vary: locations in the northern hemisphere are expected to warm more than those in the southern hemisphere. In addition, regions at higher latitudes or inland are expected to warm more than those in coastal zones. Both observations and models also suggest that in Australia and California this projected warming is likely to lead to a decrease in rainfall in most viticultural locations, leading to greater water stress and reductions in water resources in the future. Global studies have shown broad shifts to higher latitudes, with cool-climate zones being further north in Europe and North America. Similar poleward shifts are projected in the southern hemisphere, although this is likely to affect only small areas of New Zealand, Tasmania, and the southern regions of Argentina and Chile. Regional research on spatial modelling of suitable zones for viticulture in Europe show latitudinal, coastal, and elevation shifts from historic wine regions. Similar results have been found elsewhere with estimations that potential viticultural area could expand in some regions, while contracting in others. Future climate change of the magnitudes predicted will have numerous effects on society and natural ecosystems. Likewise, it presents numerous potential influences on, and challenges to, the wine industry, including additional changes in the timing of grapevine phenology, which is likely to result in a disruption of balanced composition and flavour in grapes and wine. In addition, the changes are not likely to be uniform across all regions and varieties, but are likely to be related to climatic thresholds for optimum growth and quality. Furthermore, the warming will clearly force decisions on the mix of varieties grown and the wine styles produced in particular regions: those that currently have a cool climate will have a greater choice of viable varieties, while in many of today’s warmer regions, the future climates will be challenging for optimum grape growth and wine production. Current and future adaptations to changes in climate are many; they include better understanding of the cultivar limits to climate conditions, changes in vineyard management strategies (see precision viticulture), winemaking refinements, developments in soil-rootstock compatibility, and continued plant breeding and genetic research. While the Earth’s climate is always changing, strong regional identities have developed in terms of cultivars and wine styles. Therefore, any future climate change has the potential to influence cultural change. To prepare for the future, the wine industry will most certainly need to integrate planning and adaptation strategies to adjust to changes in climate.

Answer 211

Over the last few decades, climate change, and especially global warming, has correlated with the migration of some vineyard pests and diseases. For example, in France, the flavescence dorée phytoplasma and the associated leafhopper vector Scaphoideus titanus were first described in Armagnac in 1956. The disease has been found in Bordeaux (1994) and has been increasing in the area ever since. The vector still seems to be moving further north, to Saumur-Champigny (2006), and then Burgundy and Champagne in 2012. The related phytoplasma disease bois noir (see grapevine yellows) now occurs in southern Germany. The European grapevine moth (Lobesia botrana), originating from the warmer Mediterranean areas, also seems to be travelling northwards, replacing the cool-climate vine moth (Eupoecilia ambiguella) in some areas of the Loire Valley. This northwards insect migration is generally considered to be due to the impact of warming on insect distribution, which is known to be one of the first biological indicators of climate change. Some vineyards in the southern hemisphere are facing warmer and drier weather conditions, which should not in theory favour disease development. In both hemispheres, however, trends towards higher temperatures are combined with more irregular and more intense rainfall. Generally, warmer and wetter conditions increase fungal disease pressure by encouraging more infection cycles. In European vineyards, downy and powdery mildews and botrytis bunch rot are now considered more aggressive. By the mid 2010s powdery mildew was a more common phenomenon in Champagne than ever before, perhaps because of warmer temperatures. black rot, even though it was introduced more than a century ago from the US, has been spreading in many European countries, from Germany to Hungary, and even to places with warm, dry climates such as Portugal and central Italy. More generations of grapevine moths, mites, and leafhoppers are generally observed with higher temperatures, and additional late-season flights of insects such as European grapevine moths have been regularly observed in pheromone traps in warm years in the Bordeaux region, even if without an increase in actual damage by the mid 2010s. It is too early to be sure that extraordinary weather conditions such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts are the result of climate change because much longer-term data are required. Pathologists studying grapevine pests and diseases face a similar dilemma. Are recent changes in the distribution or impact truly part of longer-term effects brought about by climate change, or are they due to changes in, for example, vineyard management, pesticide use, global transport, or a genuine movement into a new ecological niche for a species? This is not to say that climate-change effects on diseases cannot be predicted. For example, Salinari et al. simulated likely future downy-mildew attacks in Acqui Terme in north-west Italy, for the decades around 2030, 2050, and 2080. General Circulation Models predicted an increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation; the former outweighed the latter in terms of influence and was sufficient to predict increased disease pressure and more severe epidemics. Two more sprayings would be required early in the season. However, pests and diseases may also change over the longer term. Fungi, for example, are able to adapt themselves not only to climate change but also to the sprayed agrochemicals used for their control. This is another challenge in situations with higher disease pressure, where more sprays are required to ensure sufficient control. Unfortunately, more reliance on sprayed chemicals can favour development of resistant fungal strains. The grapevine as host plant has also to be considered in terms of its sensitivity to pests and diseases in a changing climate. Crossing resistant cultivars (see disease-resistant varieties) with sensitive Vitis vinifera varieties that have high qualitative traits could be a key factor in successfully adapting to changing vineyard climate.

Answer 212

A severe and prolonged deficit of rainfall, compared with that normally received. Its implications for viticulture depend on the region and its normal climate. In cool and wet viticultural regions, drought years often produce the best vintages, especially of red wines. This is because excessive vegetative growth, or excess vigour, is arrested; yields are limited; berry size remains small with the purported benefits of a high ratio of the colour- and flavour-containing skin to juice; and sunshine and warmth are greater than average. Such effects are well known in Europe and New Zealand. Such beneficial effects nevertheless depend on the drought’s not being too extreme. Severe water stress reduces yield and is almost always detrimental to wine quality, especially if it occurs during ripening. Most dry viticultural climates are regularly warm and sunny enough, and drought is nearly always detrimental: whether directly, in the case of dryland viticulture, or indirectly via a lack and/or reduced quality of irrigation water. California suffered a periodic drought for three years 2012 to 2014, causing stresses on underground water reserves. Eastern Australia also suffered a severe drought in the first decade of the 21st century. Drought in such climates drastically reduces growth and yield, and if very severe can disrupt the ripening process more or less completely. In desert regions, drought is the norm, and commercial viticulture may only survive if sufficient irrigation is available.

Answer 213

Is the physiological state of plants, including vines, suffering from a shortage of water. Water stress during the later stages of the viticultural growing season is common, since a considerable proportion of the world’s vines are grown in mediterranean climates, where rain falls principally in the winter months and irrigation is restricted or not used. By the time of ripening, the amount of soil water may well be low. It is commonly held that mild water stress, often referred to as water deficit, is desirable for optimum wine quality, especially for red wines, but there is little agreement about exactly how much. There is, however, almost universal agreement that water deficit should be sufficient before veraison to stop shoot tips actively growing. Otherwise the shoot tips attract assimilates, the products of photosynthesis, away from the ripening fruit, to the detriment of wine quality. Water deficit is essential for growing good-quality dark-skinned grapes. It not only reduces shoot growth but also limits berry size and increases the phenolics in the skins. However, these beneficial effects require a canopy free from shade and, generally, low yields. A combination of high yields and water stress leads to poor ripening due to insufficient photosynthesis. This explains why great wines may be produced in very dry climatic conditions in southern France or Spain, for example, but only when yields are kept to 30 hl/ha or less. Peyrot des Gachons et al. have shown that water stress is not generally favourable for the quality of white wines, causing them to be less aromatic. irrigation can be used to overcome water stress, although it is outlawed or severely restricted in some European countries. Water stress results in restriction of growth and loss of yield. Unirrigated dryland vineyards in hot climates may yield only 2 to 5 tonnes/ha, for instance. partial rootzone drying is an irrigation method which aims to stimulate the vines’ perception of water stress while minimizing any drop in yield. Another irrigation strategy designed to induce water stress is regulated deficit irrigation. However, this technique is more likely to reduce yield and can induce excessive water stress in hot weather if not applied judiciously. Both techniques are used in California and Australia to control water stress in vines at critical times to achieve better fruit and wine quality. Water stress depends on two components: the available water content in the root zone of the vine (see soil water), and the evaporative demand of the atmosphere. The latter depends on factors affecting the rate of evaporation, which is high on sunny, hot, windy days with low humidity. On days with extremely high evaporation, even well-watered vines can show temporary wilting. On the other hand, vines growing in dry soils but in overcast, cool, and humid climates do not show as much water stress. The combination of climate, soil, and vine architecture which results in maximum vine stress is high evaporation, low soil water content, and large leaf area; minimum stress results from low evaporation, wet soils, and small leaf area. Water stress is measured by vine physiologists as water potential in the plant, but is more easily understood in terms of the effect on the vine. One of the first signs of impending water stress is the drooping, or wilting, of tendrils near the shoot tip, followed by wilting of the young, then the mature, leaves. With severe stress, the leaves exhibit yellowing, then necrosis, and may eventually fall off. Berries start to shrivel. As water stress develops in the vine, the plant responds by endeavouring to reduce water loss. In new world countries in particular, where irrigation is more common, water stress is sometimes indicated by measurements of soil water content or suction, with irrigation decisions based on this information. The direct measurement of water stress as experienced by the vine (through so-called ‘physiological indicators’) has been made possible by the commercial availability in the last decade of the 20th century of equipment such as pressure bombs, which measure leaf or stem water potential. Although time-consuming, this measurement can indicate day-to-day fluctuations in vine water status and is widely used in the Central Valley, California. It can be used either to monitor the response of dry-farmed vines to the site, or to fine-tune irrigation, although such data are not always easy to interpret. A very promising technique to measure the water deficit experienced by vines is to analyse carbon isotope discrimination by measuring the ratio of 13C to 12C in the sugar content of fully ripe grapes. In the process of photosynthesis, plants incorporate preferentially 12C and thus ‘discriminate’ against 13C but in water stress conditions, isotope discrimination is less effective so that the 13C/12C ratio is lower. This ratio can therefore be used as a measurement of average water uptake conditions from veraison through to ripeness, as described in van Leeuwen et al. (2009). The measurement can be outsourced to specialized laboratories and requires no other field work than grape sampling. Possible applications are the assessment of vine water status in terroir studies and validation of irrigation strategies at the end of the season. A well-watered vine opens the pores called stomata on the underside of the leaf in response to the first light of dawn, and they remain open all day, allowing the free exchange of water vapour (the air humidity) and carbon dioxide between the leaf interior and the atmosphere. Water stress causes the vine leaf partially to close stomata during the day, and the hormone abscisic acid regulates this response. Initially, this may be in the middle of the day, but subsequently, as the stress worsens, they are shut for most of the day. While this action is sufficient to reduce further water loss, photosynthesis is reduced because of the lack of carbon dioxide. Recent studies have shown that stomata may stay open during the night, so that night-time water stress may occur. Water stress also affects a range of other vine functions. It can substitute for winter cold in promoting dormancy in tropical viticulture. During the growing season, drought causes shoot growth to slow and then stop as the leaf tip loses activity. Leaves are smaller and paler in colour, and the growth of lateral shoots is also inhibited. Severe stress early in the season can reduce fruit set, and later stress reduces berry size. The effect of water stress on wine quality is not straightforward. There is no doubt that severe water stress interrupts grape ripening and reduces wine quality (especially when yields are high), as for example may be observed in Algeria. It is not clear whether water stress leads to higher sugars and better wine in dry viticultural areas such as the languedoc and roussillon in southern France. In humid maritime climates, such as that of bordeaux, however, there has been ample demonstration that mild water stress during ripening is favourable to wine quality. For example, the Bordeaux growing seasons of 1989, 1990, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2005, 2009, and 2010, all superior vintages, were all relatively dry. Van Leuwen et al. (2009) show that all the driest vintages produced good quality and all the wettest vintages were relatively poor.

Answer 214

Australian irrigation technique designed to control vine vigour and maintain wine quality with minimum interference to yield. PRD was developed by scientists Dry and Loveys from the University of adelaide and csiro, after observation of basic vine physiology in response to water stress. Initially using vines with divided root systems, they discovered that when only a portion of a vine’s root system was drying, transpiration was reduced and shoot growth was slowed as a consequence of the production of the hormone abscisic acid by drying roots. Field experiments with Cabernet Sauvignon showed that it was possible to control shoot vigour and reduce the amount of water needed while maintaining yield and quality. This was achieved with two drip irrigation lines per row, used alternately for irrigation while the other part of the root system was drying. The results from these studies have been used to interpret some of the known beneficial effects of water stress, especially for red wine quality. Commercial adoption in vineyards has been limited thus far. However, research on grapevines and other crops has clearly shown that PRD can generate a unique physiological response that is distinct from what happens with conventional irrigation, including regulated deficit irrigation.

Answer 215

An irrigation scheduling technique which uses mild water stress at key stages of fruit development to reduce vegetative growth and improve berry ripening and thus improve grape quality. RDI was first applied on peach and pear orchards in Australia in the 1980s. Research showed that it restricted shoot growth without significantly affecting yield. It is now common practice in many vineyards around the world, especially in those planted to black grape varieties, due to the greater benefits to grape colour. The main benefits of this strategically managed water stress are less competition between berry ripening and vegetative growth, better water conservation, and reduced berry size. Successful application requires careful monitoring of evapotranspiration and soil water content and typically results in slightly lower yields. It is most effectively applied through drip irrigation, which allows the application of small amounts of water. RDI is more stressful to the vine than partial rootzone drying and its use in hot regions can cause problems if its application is followed by a spell of hot weather: vines with limited soil moisture can suffer extremes of water stress, which may, for example, lead to rapid loss of leaves. This situation can be alleviated by carefully monitoring weather forecasts and applying some irrigation. Water deficit is generally applied between fruit set and a week or so after veraison but is generally avoided in the later stages of berry ripening.

Answer 216

Viticulture relying entirely on natural rainfall, and a term used, sometimes as a sales pitch, only in regions where irrigation is common. There can be little doubt that some European areas with both moderate rainfall and Mediterranean climates, now practising fully dryland viticulture, could in some circumstances improve their wine quality if limited irrigation were allowed. Excessive water stress causes loss of photosynthesis and eventually of the leaves themselves, and can seriously prejudice normal ripening. On the other hand, even in New World regions where irrigation is widely practised, dryland vineyards are often prized for the quality of their fruit, for which some wineries will pay a premium, thereby allowing such vineyards to remain economical. As water shortages become more prevalent, dryland viticulture is likely to become more common, at least in regions of moderate rainfall.

Answer 217

Involves using machines for pruning vines in winter. (For what is sometimes referred to as summer pruning, see trimming.) Viticulture is a very traditional form of agriculture and many who tend the vines regard the annual winter pruning as their prime opportunity to interact physically with each vine. Because of this, and because they feel that mechanical pruning cannot offer the precision of manual pruning, many vine-growers oppose mechanical pruning, even at the expense of hours of back-breaking labour in cold and sometimes wet weather. Early experiments in mechanical pruning were carried out in Australia and New York state in the mid 1970s. The machinery was not as elaborate as that for mechanical harvesting, which was undergoing simultaneous development. The pruning machines were simply reciprocating cutters or flails mounted on a tractor. In Australia circular saws were widely used, and sometimes these were mounted on a machine harvester with the picking head removed. Machine pruning is simple in the extreme, as the vine canes (generally around a metre in length, and with, say, 15 buds) are cut back to their base leaving typically a spur with two or more buds. (cane pruning cannot, of course, be mechanized but surplus cane removal after hand cutting can be, and in New Zealand machines have been developed to strip last season’s growth off the trellis wires, offering partial mechanization.) Early commercial experiments followed mechanical pruning with hand pruning to tidy the vines’ appearance, by thinning out spur numbers and cutting them to a uniform two-bud length, hence the term mechanical pre-pruning. This cuts pruning time in half. Encouraged by early experiments in Australia, however, most vines have since been left untended after machine pruning. Although they look ugly in late winter, soon after budbreak they cannot be distinguished from hand-pruned vines. Because more buds are left on the vine (up to fivefold)), the yield usually increases for the first year or so, but many studies show no significant effect on wine quality. However, because of an increase in pruning wounds, some affecting thicker, older wood, such vines may be more prone to trunk disease. Mechanical pruning is now widespread in Australia, especially in the hotter wine regions, mostly using tractor-mounted circular saws, with a single pass cutting through wood of various ages across the top of the vine. Robots developed for cane pruning, using 3D vision, were field tested in New Zealand in 2014 following two years’ research at the University of Canterbury. Other parts of the world have been much slower to embrace mechanical pruning, however, especially those where labour is plentiful and relatively inexpensive. Mechanical pre-pruning is becoming more widespread for the extensive vineyards of southern France. In cooler regions such as northern Europe, mechanical pruning is less useful because machine pruning leaves too many buds, tending to increase yield and slow ripening. The 100 to 150 hours per hectare required for hand pruning can be reduced to less than ten hours per hectare with mechanical pruning. Some of the substantial cost savings associated with this reduction may be lost if too extensive hand pruning follows. The logical extension of mechanical pruning is not to prune at all, so-called minimal pruning.

Answer 218

A viticultural technique developed by the csiro in Australia whereby the vines are essentially left without any form of pruning from one year to the next. The technique has particular application to higher-yielding, low-cost vineyards in warmer areas but was also used in some cooler regions producing high-quality wines, especially Australia’s coonawarra region where there is a shortage of labour. The technique was developed and popularized in the late 1970s and 1980s but its scientific interest can be traced back to a difference of opinion between two eminent viticultural scientists in the late 1960s. When Professor Nelson shaulis of cornell university in New York state was visiting the csiro at Merbein in Victoria, Australia, he debated with Dr Peter May and Allan Antcliff whether an unpruned vine might die. To settle the question a sultana (Thompson Seedless) vine was left unpruned; to general surprise, it produced a large crop that ripened satisfactorily. At this time there was interest in mechanical pruning, and in many ways minimal pruning is a natural extension of that method. The technique has now been extensively evaluated for vine varieties for both wine production and drying grapes and in both hot and cooler climates. One might imagine that an unpruned plant would exhaust itself and die if its growth and cropping were not controlled by pruning. Interestingly, the opposite is true. The production of Sultana vines, which have now not been pruned for almost forty years, has continued to be satisfactory. Although vines are not killed by pruning, it has been shown to have a weakening effect on them. Furthermore, minimal or zero winter pruning is what vines experience in their natural state, and primitive vines survived in the wild for millions of years before they were first cultivated by man and pruned. A feature of unpruned, or minimally pruned, vines is that there are many short shoots, whereas a pruned vine has fewer shoots which in turn grow more vigorously. A minimally pruned vine typically produces more fruit than one conventionally pruned, especially in the first year or so of minimal pruning. In addition, a minimally pruned vine establishes a large leaf area earlier in the growing season, which is advantageous for photosynthesis. Ripening of this increased crop can be delayed, and if ripening is inadequate, due to cool weather for example, then wine quality can be reduced. In hot regions a harvest delay of a week or so is of little consequence, but in cooler climates the delay may be disastrous. Research by Rousseau et al. over a seven-year period in the Languedoc found that minimally pruned vines had higher yields and ripened 7–25 days later or, for later-ripening varieties such as Mourvèdre, not at all. Minimally pruned vines look extremely wild and untidy compared with vines pruned by hand. After several years, old wood builds up in the centre of the thicket that is an unpruned vine, and this can exacerbate the threat of pests such as mealy bug. During the growing season, however, the vine’s appearance may not be too different from that of normally pruned vines. Where minimal pruning is practised in hotter, dry climates, shoots stop growing quite early in the summer, and so the canopy can be relatively open with good fruit exposure, a requirement of a good canopy microclimate. Where the climate is cooler and more humid and the vines are growing in fertile, moist soil, however, shoots may continue to grow, and the bunches of grapes may effectively be buried under several layers of leaves. This shaded canopy may then result in reduced colour and flavour in the grapes and eventual wine.

Answer 219

Harvesting by machine in place of the traditional manual harvest. Undoubtedly one of the greatest changes from ancient to modern vineyards has been the adoption of machine harvesting, which was first introduced commercially in the 1960s. Whereas manual grape harvesting required literally hordes of pickers to descend on vineyards and complete the harvest, now the vintage may be completed by just one harvester driver, perhaps with a supporting driver and vehicle to receive the harvested grapes. Depending on the yield and vineyard topography, to harvest a vineyard by hand requires between one and ten man-days per hectare, as opposed to less than five man-hours per hectare by machine. Mechanical harvesting has been adopted for different reasons in different parts of the world. In some of the earliest developments instigated by Nelson shaulis and E. S. Shepardson at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, in upstate New York, a major consideration was potential cost savings. In Australia, of the first countries to embrace the new technology, the scarcity of labour was important, and welfare payments were another factor. In France, the increasing bureaucracy and costs involved in employing people even temporarily added allure to machine harvesting in the 1980s and 1990s. The net effect was that seasonal workers were more difficult to find, they demanded higher wages, and were also perhaps less reliable, all of these factors promoting machines over man at vintage time. Machine harvesting may have been developed in the United States, but the technology was rapidly refined in France.

Answer 220

Mechanical harvesting can either increase the efficiency of manual labour, or virtually replace it. Very early attempts at mechanization emphasized the first approach, but it has been the second approach which has been the more successful, by developing machines which essentially replace most of the manual operations. Many forms of integrated machine harvesters have been developed and evaluated, although by the early 21st century, most machines worked by striking the canopy to remove fruit and catching it with horizontal conveyor belts. The early New York development was the ‘vertical impactor’, which used a metal finger to strike the vine cordon; the shock dislodged the berries. However, the most common form of harvesting now is the ‘horizontal slapper’ which uses fibreglass rods to strike the foliage and dislodge the fruit, sometimes as single berries, sometimes as bunches.

Answer 221

The effect of machine harvesting on wine quality has been the subject of much scientific study, commercial experience, and popular conjecture. The majority of studies have shown that sophisticated mechanical harvesting has no negative effect on wine quality, and some have even argued that there is a positive effect. Certainly most forms of machine harvesting damage some grapes so that parts of berries and bunches are mixed with the juice of broken berries. However, the juice can be protected from oxidation by sulfur dioxide addition, especially if moved quickly in a closed container to the winery. This problem can be minimized by harvesting at night, a practice widely adopted in hotter wine regions where grapes harvested by day can arrive at the winery at over 40 °C/104 °F. Indeed, in these circumstances, machine picking at night is a bonus for wine quality in comparison with hand harvesting by day. Another disadvantage of machine harvesting is that there can be excessive skin contact, which, depending on its duration, usually dictated by transport times, can lead to white wines becoming too high in phenolics. The skin contact involved in transporting mechanically harvested white grapes to a winery can also cause a significant increase in the concentration of proteins in the wine, necessitating higher rates of bentonite fining. Long distances between the winery and vineyard may make a mechanical harvest for delicate white wines an impossibility. Machine-harvested grapes can also contain leaves and petioles (see mog), which may cause taints. Despite much evidence in favour of machine harvesting, some producers will remain with hand harvesting. The gentler nature of hand harvesting (which can also involve some degree of selection, e.g. avoiding unripe bunches or those affected by bunch rot) is preferable for many top-quality wines, especially sparkling wines, for which whole bunches may be pressed without first crushing. However, in Australia, for example, machine harvesting of grapes for sparkling wine is being evaluated.

Answer 222

Viticultural technique designed to increase the sugar concentration in almost-ripe grapes. The term originated in Australia, where this technique is typically used to produce sweet wines, but it is apparently also used occasionally for dry red wines, for example, by Bertani in the Veneto, and even for Spätburgunder in Germany, even though it is illegal there. By cutting the canes almost at the time of harvest, water supply to the fruit is halted, and so the berries start to shrivel (as in the production of dried-grape wines). Sugar concentration is elevated as water is lost through the berry skin and acidity may also be increased. The technique, resulting in grapes known as passerillés in French, was developed to avert rain spoilage of drying grapes.

Answer 223

Cooling process that has had a profound effect on how and where wine is made and how it tastes (see temperature), enabling the winemaker to have a much greater degree of control than was possible before mechanical refrigeration became the norm for all but the least sophisticated wineries in the second half of the 20th century. More than any other factor, refrigeration has permitted warm and hot regions to produce wine of internationally acceptable quality.

Answer 224

The essence of refrigeration is the transfer of heat from the body being refrigerated to some other place. The most obvious winery application of refrigeration is in the temperature control of fermentation—although refrigeration also allows winemakers to delay the processing of freshly picked grapes or must (see must chilling) until convenient, even in hot areas, where the use of chilled rooms to cool and store grapes prior to pressing has increased. The energy generated by the conversion of sugar to alcohol, carbon dioxide, and water is only partly used by the yeast in building cells and by-products. The rest appears as heat, which, above a certain temperature, risks killing the yeast and therefore arresting the fermentation process. The amounts of heat generated by fermentation are large. Ten hl/260 gal of grape juice containing 20% sugar will generate about 3.6 million kilocalories, or enough to melt 45 tons of ice. Not all the heat generated has to be removed by refrigeration, however. Because heat moves naturally by conduction from hotter bodies to cooler ones with which they are in contact, warm fermenting wine loses heat to the walls of the fermentation vessel and from the outside of the wall to the atmosphere. Some of the fermentation heat will be removed by radiation from the outside of the fermenting vessel too, provided its temperature is higher than that of the objects in its vicinity. Heat may also be lost by radiation if open-topped fermentation vessels are used, or by volatilization of some of the water and alcohol in the wine. All of these natural heat removal processes that function independently of refrigeration occur at the surfaces of the fermenting mass. Heat production, on the other hand, occurs throughout the entire volume of the mass. The amount of heat removed from a fermenting mass therefore depends on the surface to volume ratio of the fermentation vessel. A 225-l/59-gal barrique, for example, will probably lose enough generated heat for the temperature to remain within an acceptable range for fermentation. A typical large tank, on the other hand, which might contain several hundred hectolitres, will certainly need active heat removal to keep the temperature of the fermenting mass below danger point. The development of mechanical refrigeration in the early 20th century at least made cooling a possibility in areas where insufficient naturally cold water was available. Early efforts to control temperature, used in France as recently as the 1970s, included the simple addition of blocks of ice to the fermenting wine (with concomitant dilution). More mechanical early systems of refrigeration cooled the wine by running cold water through metal tubes suspended in the tank. The development of more efficient pumps permitted systems which moved wine from the tank through coils immersed in cold water and then back into the tank. In modern wineries, however, wines are seldom moved for cooling purposes. stainless steel tanks with cooling devices, usually coils, inside the tank and cooling jackets incorporated in the external walls are now standard wine equipment. Temperature-sensing probes in tanks signal a computer system which controls the supply of refrigerant to the coils to a level predetermined for each tank by the winemaker. Refrigeration has become increasingly important in other winemaking processes, however. Some producers, notably in Australia, store grape juice in refrigerated conditions for several months before fermentation. Others, notably in parts of North America, New Zealand, and sauternes, may prior to fermentation apply heavy refrigeration to emulate the conditions necessary to produce eiswein (see freeze concentration and cryoextraction). Pre-fermentation cold maceration occasionally calls for refrigeration too. In warmer wine regions, some degree of refrigeration may be needed during wine maturation, and refrigerated tanks are routinely used for everyday wines to ensure that tartrates are not precipitated in bottle

Answer 225

Refrigeration plays a part, and all too often a villainous part, in the serving of wine. Long before the advent of mechanical refrigeration, and its domestication, wine was deliberately chilled prior to serving (see Ancient greece, for example). It was fashionable to chill both red and white wines before serving at least from the 16th century. A wide range of wine coolers was used to achieve this until the 20th century, when mechanical refrigeration was domestically available. The modern successors of these large containers for both ice and bottles are the single-bottle wine coolers known as ice buckets and the gel-filled flexible sleeves kept frozen ready for use.

Answer 226

Sometimes called brett, one of the yeast genera found occasionally on grapes but more often in wines, especially those that have undergone barrel maturation or cask ageing. Brettanomyces in its perfect or sporulating form is known as dekkera, but recent changes to the rules for naming fungi suggest precedence be given to the name Brettanomyces. While it is widely considered a spoilage yeast since it can produce off-flavours in wines, there are producers who suggest that at low levels some of the diverse flavours produced by Brettanomyces can improve red wine complexity. (In some beers, for example Belgium’s spontaneously fermented lambic and gueuze beers, Brettanomyces and its effects are essential.) The first isolation of Brettanomyces, originally designated Mycotorula intermedia, in wine was in the 1930s by Krumbholz and Tauschanoff. Although the number of Brettanomyces/Dekkera species has expanded and contracted due to changes in methods of identification, of the five species currently recognised, Brettanomyces (Dekkera) bruxellensis is the one most commonly found in wines worldwide. This species can grow in both red and white wine, although it is more often associated with red. Brettanomyces is both an anaerobic and an aerobic organism. It is a resourceful microbe that can utilize a number of substrates at low levels and under restrictive conditions. The range and quantity of by-products produced by Brettanomyces depend on various factors, including levels of substrates, available precursors, and the size of the Brettanomyces population in the wine. The most important substrate is residual sugar, although some oxygen is needed to maximize growth. There are four key by-products of Brettanomyces growth which can affect the flavour and aroma of a wine: esterases, volatile fatty acids, tetrahydropyridines, and, arguably the most important, volatile phenols. Two critical volatile phenol compounds have been isolated from Brettanomyces activity: 4-ethylphenol (4-EP) and 4-ethylguaiacol (4-EG). 4-EP is often described as introducing an ‘animal’, ‘medicinal’, and ‘sweaty saddle’ flavour to wine. Its presence is an almost certain indicator of a Brettanomyces infection, and this is what most diagnostic laboratories test for to verify the presence of Brettanomyces. 4-EG in wine has a more appealing smoky, spicy, clove-like aroma. Formation of tetrahydropyridines, which are responsible for mousy off-flavour, seems to result from a large population of Brettanomyces which is stimulated by exposure of wine to oxygen, for example when the wine is on ullage. Brettanomyces can create significant levels of volatile phenols in a short period of time and is difficult to manage in the cellar. However, the tools for monitoring Brettanomyces have never been more advanced, and winemakers can use microbiological techniques such as selective growth media containing cyclodeximide and odourless hydroxyphenolic acid precursor compound, or DNA-based identification methods, and analytical techniques such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to monitor high-risk wines. Brettanomyces strains have variable sensitivity to sulfur dioxide. Recent research suggests that they might be adapting to it but that they can be controlled by maintaining at least 0.625 mg/l molecular sulfur dioxide. Wines are at greatest risk of spoilage if the onset of malolactic conversion is delayed or if there is insufficient sulfur dioxdide during maturation. hygiene is an important factor in controlling the spread of Brettanomyces in the cellar. Areas that provide suitable niches for Brettanomyces are must lines, dirty crush equipment, barrels, or any tank or transfer line that is not cleaned effectively. There have also been suggestions that the fruit fly (see drosophila) can carry Brettanomyces. Once it is embedded in cooperage, it can be difficult to eliminate from the cellar and barrels may need to be discarded to significantly reduce the populations. As with other microbes, the cleaner the winery, the more control one has over Brettanomyces. There are currently only two methods that virtually eliminate Brettanomyces at bottling: sterile filtration and dimethyl dicarbonate

Answer 227

Also known as sporadic post-bottling oxidation, describes the premature browning that occurs in some white wines some months after bottling. The problem is common enough for some industry figures to refer to it as the ‘new cork taint’. Wines are protected against oxidation through the addition of sulfur dioxide at bottling but if the level of free sulfur dioxide falls too low, the wine is unprotected, and browning can occur. The main explanation is oxygen transfer through the cork, which seems to be highly variable. However, some scientists suspect that random oxidation may be caused by as yet poorly understood chemical reactions independent of the closure. It has been suggested that the addition of the antioxidant ascorbic acid just before bottling to keep white wines fresh may have the paradoxical effect of rendering the added sulfur dioxide less effective, and making some wines susceptible to oxidation. Worse still, when the level of free sulfur dioxide in the bottle becomes too low, ascorbic acid becomes a pro-oxidant, increasing the degree of oxidation. Another proposed cause is poor procedure or intermittent failure on the bottling line, allowing some wines to have much higher levels of dissolved oxygen from the outset (see total package oxygen). Random oxidation is mainly a problem with white wines: while oxygen ingress through the closure will certainly damage red wines, they are more resistant to oxidation because of their high phenolic content. Oxidation is also more likely to be spotted in white wines because of the dramatic colour change that accompanies it even though this change in colour is usually the last step in premature oxidation.

Answer 228

Became the world’s sixth biggest wine producer in 2005, producing 14.7 million hl/388 million gal of wine in 2004, but by 2013 production had fallen to 12.31 million hl/324 million gal and both Chile and China have been catching up. After a flurry of vineyard expansion in the 1990s, total vineyard area was almost 148,500 ha/367,000 acres in 2012, having declined slightly each year since 2007. The steady fall in vineyard area reflects the Australian wine industry’s painful reorientation away from inexpensive, mass-market wine to more upmarket bottlings in keeping with Australia’s relatively high production costs. Vines have been grubbed up in all regions, but mostly in the hotter, drier, water-dependent regions such as riverland and riverina. This was propelled by the drought that persisted for three seasons from 2007 when the cost of irrigation water hit heights that made viticulture unsustainable. Australia makes every one of the major wine styles from aromatic, dry white table wine through to wines fashioned in the image of vintage port. Some of its wines—the unwooded Semillons of the Hunter Valley, the fortified topaques and muscats of north east Victoria—have no direct equivalent elsewhere, but overall the wines manage to be at once distinctively Australian yet fit easily into the world scene. Just over 2,500 wineries are spread through every state. Most of the wineries are small; 86% of them crushed 250 tonnes of grapes or less in 2014, and 87% of the annual crush is accounted for by the 20 largest companies. The top five, treasury (Penfolds, Wolf Blass, Wynns, Rosemount, Yellowglen, Lindemans), accolade (Hardys, Houghton, Banrock Station, Bay of Fires), pernod ricard (Jacob’s Creek, Wyndham Estate, St Hugo), Australian Vintage (McGuigan, Nepenthe, Tempus Two), and Casella (yellow tail) account for more than half. As in California, the overwhelming majority (over 2,300) of those small wineries have come into existence since 1970, offering weekend or retirement occupations for people from all walks of life. In typical Australian style, however, the owners have frequently appointed themselves as hands-on viticulturists and winemakers. Nevertheless, perhaps due to the trickle-down effect of the renowned australian wine research institute at Adelaide and the university wine schools (see adelaide), standards are extremely high. The Australian wine show system has also played a major role in promoting technical excellence and in shaping style. The lessons of the show ring have been reinforced by the well-known penchant Australians have for travel. Indeed, Australia spawned the so-called flying winemakers, a group of oenological guns for hire who follow the vintage around the world. On a less formal basis, many Australian winemakers have made a point of travelling and working overseas, principally in Europe. See australian influence. Add this experience to the technological base, take in the effect of the sunny Australian climate, and allow for the surge in plantings of such popular grape varieties as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon, and it is not hard to see why Australian exports increased out of all recognition between 1983–4 and 2003–4, from 8.9 million litres/2.35 million gal, worth AU$9.6 million, to 575 million litres/151 million gal worth AU$2.55 billion. This placed it behind only France, Italy, and Spain in value of wine exports, a position it continued to occupy in the early 2010s, despite producing only 4% of the world’s wine. It is not too fanciful to suggest that the wines have an openness, a confident, user-friendly style which reflects the national character (and climate). Australian winemakers have opted to preserve as much as possible of the flavour of the grape, yet to do so with a delicacy of touch, producing intensely fruity white wines and soft, mouth-filling red wines which appeal to the heart as much as to the mind. In so doing they (willingly) sacrificed structural complexity at the altar of simple fruit flavour, although by the end of the first decade of this century wine styles were changing, with levels of alcohol and obvious oak in decline. Between 1975 and 1985, the Australian ‘wine boom’, sales of dry white wine quadrupled, while those of red wine were static, but since 1985 red wine sales have more than doubled. By 2014, white wine represented 39% of the local market; red and rosé together 32.5%, and sparkling was 6.7%. fortified wines had declined steadily, from 70% in the 1950s to under 3%. Australia has the highest annual per capita wine consumption in the English-speaking world (see appendix 2c), steadily rising to 23.3 l/6 gal in 2011, an increase of more than 10% since 2003. Wine ‘casks’ (see boxes), usually containing 4 litres (1 gal), played a particularly important part in growing the Australian wine market, once accounting for more than half of all sales by volume, although by 2014 cask sales represented only 31% and were in steady decline as drinkers traded up and bottled wine became more affordable.

Answer 229

‘On 24th January two bunches of grapes were cut in the Governor’s garden from cuttings of vines brought three years before from the Cape of Good Hope.’ The year was 1791, the chronicler Watkin Tench, and the site of the garden is now occupied by the Hotel Inter-Continental in Sydney’s Macquarie Street. Between 1820 and 1840 commercial viticulture was progressively established in New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, Victoria, and finally South Australia. It was based upon comprehensive collections of vinifera vines imported from Europe: there are no native vines in Australia, and neither crosses nor hybrids have ever taken root. Italian immigrants (in Riverland and Riverina), Silesians (in the Barossa and Clare Valleys), Dalmatians (in the Swan Valley of western australia), and Swiss (Yarra Valley and Geelong in Victoria) all played key roles in the establishment of viticulture. By 1870, South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales all had substantial industries: that year they produced 8.7 million l/2.3 million gal of wine. Twenty years later Victoria alone was making twice that amount, more than the other two states combined. But phylloxera (discovered near Geelong in 1877), changing land use, a swing from dry wine production to fortified wine, the establishment of irrigated vineyards along the Murray River, and the removal of state trade barriers after Federation in 1901 saw South Australia comprehensively usurp Victoria’s dominant position. By 1930, South Australia was producing over 75% of Australia’s wine and the Barossa Valley had become the centre of production, processing not only its own grapes but much of those grown in riverland, then and now the engine-room of Australian bulk wine production in the same way as California’s central valley. As the geographic base moved from the cooler parts of Victoria to the warmer regions of South Australia, and specifically as the Murray and then Murrumbidgee-based Riverina came into production, so the type of wine being produced changed. Between 1927 and 1939 inclusive, Australia exported more wine to the United Kingdom than did France, mainly because of the Imperial Preference system which created trading advantages within the British Commonwealth. Most of this wine was fortified, the remainder being massively alcoholic and ferruginous red wine from north east Victoria, the Barossa Valley, and McLaren Vale, marketed (inter alia) under the Emu wine brand. The industry of today started to take shape in the mid 1950s. Cold fermentation of white wine in stainless steel was pioneered (see refrigeration); the big wine companies moved into Coonawarra and (a decade later) nearby Padthaway; and the decline in fortified wine production and consumption contrasted with spectacular growth in the consumption of red table wine (up to 1970) and thereafter white table wine. The 1970s witnessed the arrival of the wine cask, of Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, the phenomenon of the boutique winery, and the re-establishment of viticulture across the cool corner of south eastern Australia, running east from Coonawarra and Padthaway right through Victoria. Since the export boom started in the mid 1980s, the Australian industry has literally reinvented itself. Back in 1956, multi-purpose (eating, drying or winemaking) and non-premium varieties (Doradillo, Trebbiano, and such like) accounted for 85% of the crush, premium grapes for 15%. In 1986, the shares were 60% and 40% respectively; in 1994, 30% and 70%; and by 2004, 10 and 90%. There may be a change within the mix of premium varieties, but the percentage of multi-purpose grapes is unlikely to fall much further (if at all) because of the safety valve they represent. Looked at another way, in 1994, the ‘big three’ varieties Chardonnay, Shiraz, and Cabernet Sauvignon provided 27% of production; in 2013 they provided just under 60%. The extent and speed of this vineyard reconstruction, achieved without subsidy or direct government support (although tax breaks were offered for vineyard investment for a time), is a prime reason why Australia has such a competitive edge over old world producers. The last two decades of the 20th century saw more of the same: it is obvious, then, that the fine wines of today bear no resemblance to all but a tiny handful of those of 60 years ago. The next 60 years will bring further refinement, a continuation of the trend towards quality, and a decrease in the use of chemicals in all aspects of grape-growing and, to a lesser degree, winemaking. It is certain that the industry will continue to grow, but only the bravest prophet would suggest a further degree of change equivalent to that of the second half of the 20th century.

Answer 230

With a land mass similar to that of the United States of America, winter snowfields larger than those of Switzerland, and with viticulture in every state, one-line descriptions of the Australian climate are hazardous. For all that, there are two basic weather patterns, one affecting Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania (the southern states), the other governing Queensland and New South Wales. The southern states experience a winter–spring rainfall pattern, with a dry summer and early autumn. Ridges of high pressure sweep across the southern half of the continent from Perth to Melbourne during the vines’ growing season, uninterrupted by mountain ranges; daytime temperatures typically range between 25 °C/77 °F and 35 °C/95 °F. There is a less profound maritime influence than in California; the sea temperature is warmer, and the diurnal temperature ranges are less (see temperature variability). The resultant even accumulation of heat in the premium wine regions is seen by Australian researchers to be a major factor in promoting wine quality (and, more controversially, style). Using the California heat degree system developed by winkler, the climate varies between region I and mid region III, with a preponderance in region II. Because of the lack of summer rainfall, irrigation is considered as important for quality as for quantity. In the much hotter and drier Riverland of South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales, it becomes as essential as it is in California’s San Joaquin Valley, and is unashamedly used to boost production. The other, more northerly, weather system derives from the tropics. It provides a more even rainfall pattern, higher temperatures, and higher humidity. This system defines the subtropical climate for much of the rapidly increasing Queensland wine industry, and the coastal regions of New South Wales. The Hunter Valley is prone to receive rather too much of its annual rainfall during harvest, only to suffer the subsequent dual burden of winter and spring drought. Its redeeming feature is the humidity and afternoon cloud cover which reduces stress on the vines and reduces the impact of its region IV heat load

Answer 231

Vine-growing in Australia is concentrated in the south eastern corner of this vast country. For more detail, see under the state or territory names which are, in declining order of importance as grape growers, south australia, new south wales, victoria, western australia, tasmania, queensland, and canberra. Considerable quantities of grapes and wine are trucked over state boundaries, however, for blending and bottling. eu laws demand that varietal wines, labelled with a grape variety, be labelled with an officially recognized region. The South Eastern Australia Zone was created for this purpose and is a vast area encompassing all three of the most important wine states, including the important irrigated regions riverland and riverina. This somewhat vague description is one of the most common on Australian lower-priced wine labels in export markets.

Answer 232

Equal pay for women, introduced in the latter part of the 1960s, had some unforeseen consequences. One was a major stimulus to the development of mechanized viticulture, initially mechanical harvesting, which is responsible for about 80% of the nation’s crop, but in due course extending to pruning and, in the latter part of the 1980s, to all aspects of canopy management during the growing season. mechanical pruning machines, which trim the canopy, lift and clip the foliage wires, pluck leaves in the fruiting zone, while simultaneously spraying herbicides were already common by the early 1990s. They have, however, fallen out of favour in some regions, and particularly in Coonawarra. International cost comparisons carried out in the early 1990s for penfolds established what common sense suggested: Australia is able to grow and harvest grapes more economically than California or France (although not necessarily more economically than Chile, Argentina, or South Africa). This big-company, broad-acre approach to viticulture was carried to its logical conclusion with the development of so-called minimal pruning in the late 1970s. This involves no winter pruning at all; the vine is allowed to grow unchecked save for light trimming and skirting during the summer months, demonstrating a hitherto unsuspected capacity for self-regulation. At the other end of the spectrum, Australasian viticulturists and researchers have been at the forefront in developing advanced trellis systems and canopy management systems. While these glory under such science fiction names as RT2T and TK2T, they can be seen as doing no more than recognizing what the French have practised for centuries: namely, that sunlight interception on buds and grape bunches is essential, as is a proper balance between canopy and crop level, or yield. As in California, Oregon, and elsewhere, new vineyards in premium areas, particularly those in cooler regions, are being established with vine densities two or three times greater than traditionally used, and with specifically adapted trellis systems. The aim is better-quality grapes at yields which may in fact be greater than those of traditional plantings. The other major development is the move towards what is loosely called sustainable viticulture, with phrases such as integrated pest management coming into general (viticultural) usage. The Australian climate may prove less amenable than that of California (rather more growing season rainfall, higher humidity, and the scourge of downy mildew), but there is an ineluctable move away from fungicides, pesticides, and herbicides towards more ‘natural’ grape growing (see organic viticulture and biodynamic viticulture). While the Australian climate is less suited to sustainable viticulture than might appear at first sight, the overall health of the vineyards appears to be good. phylloxera has never entered the states of South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, nor most of New South Wales (including the Hunter Valley), and is not present in the bulk wine-producing Riverland. Small parts of Victoria remain affected, but very strict quarantine legislation, actively enforced and respected by viticulturists, prevented any spread from infested areas during the second half of the 20th century, with only one small exception. Grafting, not as protection against phylloxera but for the entirely different purpose of changing vine variety, is practised (see top grafting), and is playing a role in the shift towards premium grape varieties. However, the greater impetus comes from replanting and new plantings rather than from top grafting.

Answer 233

The typical medium-sized modern Australian winery is comprehensively equipped, especially in comparison with its counterpart in Europe. It has a laboratory capable of carrying out most basic analysis; a powerful refrigeration system for cooling fermentation in insulated stainless steel fermenters, probably computer-controlled; and a must chiller to cool white grapes immediately after they have been crushed (unless they were machine harvested at night). The crusher, press, and filtration equipment are usually of French, German, or Italian design and fabrication; and it is highly probable that there will be several large rotofermenters supplementing the normal array of fermentation vessels, including the Australian-designed Potter fermenters (see below). The winery will routinely work 24 hours a day through the six to eight weeks of harvest using two shifts. The chief winemaker can work up to 18 hours a day. Scrupulous attention is paid to hygiene with caustic soda and citric acid solutions having replaced chlorine-based products. Up to this point there is nothing particularly unusual in an international context, unless it be the extent of the refrigeration capacity and the rotofermenter capacity. It is the way Australian winemakers use the equipment, and the underlying technology, which differentiates them (and their wines) from winemakers (and wines) in most other parts of the world. The basic aims—the maximum preservation of varietal fruit flavour, and an essentially soft and supple structure for both wood-matured white and wood-matured red wines—are achieved in a number of ways. Primary fermentation and the secondary malolactic fermentation are initiated speedily by the use of cultured yeasts, although ambient yeasts are used increasingly. White wine fermentations are carried out at relatively low temperatures (typically 12–14 °C/53–7 °F), usually with clear juice which has been cold-settled (see settling), or filtered and protected against prefermentation oxidation (see protective winemaking). The more complex, so-called ‘dirty French’ barrel fermentation of cloudy juice, lees contact, malolactic fermentation, and so forth is used for most of the best Chardonnay varietals and a handful of Sauvignon Blancs and Semillon/Sauvignon blends. The majority of aromatics and unwooded whites are made without malolactic fermentation, and are bottled within six to nine months after the harvest. Because grapes grown in the warmer regions reach chemical ripeness and physiological ripeness with relatively low levels of acidity, tartaric acid is routinely added before or during the primary fermentation. In cooler areas, makers of white wines in particular endeavour to harvest the grapes with sufficient natural acidity to preclude, or at least minimize, acid additions. Nonetheless, Australian winemakers believe that if the acidification takes place at this stage, rather than later (and specifically rather than at bottling), it cannot be distinguished from natural acidity. chaptalization, by contrast, is prohibited, even in the coolest regions, although certain forms of enrichment are permitted. Red wines other than Pinot Noir are fermented at intermediate temperatures (22–8 °C) in a wide variety of fermentation vessels. The once-popular Potter fermenter (with a central vertical sieve cylinder for draining and pumping over) has been superseded by newer designs with single slope floors and sieves which hug either wall or floor, often with provision for wooden header boards for submerged cap maceration. The handling of pinot noir grapes is more complex: in this case, open-top fermenters are common, and an increasing number of wineries have the luxury of pneumatic devices for punching down. Extended maceration after fermentation is less commonly practised than in Europe or the United States, and is bypassed altogether with classic wines such as Penfolds Grange, which, like a significant proportion of fine Australian red wines, is pressed and put into barrel while still actively fermenting. The Australian belief is that post-fermentation maceration initially extracts more tannins, which entails extending the maceration to soften (by polymerization) those tannins, and that this process dulls the fruit aroma and flavour, polymerization being an oxidative process (see oxidation). In the never-ending quest for complexity, it is common to put half the wine in new oak while still fermenting, the remaining half in old oak after extended post-fermentation maceration. French oak is preferred for top-quality white wines, for Pinot Noir, and much of the Cabernet Sauvignon produced. American oak is widely used for shiraz, Cabernet–Shiraz blends, and for some Cabernet Sauvignon. Overall, the trend is towards the use of French oak, perhaps in tandem with American oak. Better barrel-making of American oak is lessening the contrast with French oak, and giving less overt oak flavours. For lesser-quality wines, the use of oak chips or inner staves (in conjunction with older barrels) is widespread. After a false start due to an over-enthusiastic rate of use, ‘micro-ox’ has become standard procedure for lower-priced, big-volume red wines intended for immediate consumption. For the reasons given in micro-oxygenation, it may also be part of the production of premium wines in the larger, more sophisticated wineries. Although in certain vintages many winemakers wish it were otherwise, must concentration equipment is not generally available. reverse osmosis, as opposed to vacuum evaporation, is the preferred method, and some consultancy businesses bring the equipment on-site and carry out the procedure. The high cost limits its use. Two issues have come to a head since 2000, seemingly unrelated, but both involving the use of sulfur dioxide. Up to that time, winemakers were following a politically correct path of reducing the total sulfur dioxide in their wines, and adding it in small, incremental doses. Laudable though it may be from a perceived health point of view, the practice has been a root cause in the disconcertingly widespread appearance of brettanomyces, a problem which was rare as recently as the 1990s. The solution advocated by the australian wine research institute is to add sulfur dioxide in a dose of not less than 50 ppm if brett is detected. A back-up of sterile filtration may be necessary in extreme circumstances. In typical fashion, winemakers reacted swiftly, and the incidence of brett has rapidly retreated. The other even more serious problem has been the increased incidence of random oxidation, particularly evident in cork-finished white wines, but also affecting red wines. The percentage affected will grow with time, but once it first occurs, the percentage will be higher than that of cork taint. Research into its causes has been underway for some time, but in the interim those who wish to continue to use corks are being advised to increase significantly the level of free sulfur dioxide at bottling. In the early 21st century, wine styles changed to suit the public palate. While Australia still produces some rich, full-bodied red wines, there has been a move away from high alcohol so that 13.5 to 14.5% is a more likely range for South Australian Shiraz than the 14.5 to 15.5% norm at the turn of the century. Chardonnay alcohols also declined as winemakers realized that cool-climate grapes could be harvested earlier without any significant loss of flavour, so 12.5 to 13.5% is now very much more common than 14%. Both Chardonnays and reds have also benefited from a reduction in the use of new, small oak barrels and the wines taste markedly less oaky. At the same time there was a move towards whole-bunch fermentation for at least a proportion of Shiraz lots. The result has been more complex, aromatic, softer wines with less assertive tannins and greater drinkability. The Australian wine industry was built on fortified wines but the most celebrated survivors of this category are the topaques and muscats of Rutherglen and Glenrowan and a storehouse of ancient wines in wood at Seppeltsfield in the barossa valley. The leading sparkling winemaker is Ed Carr, who is responsible for House of Arras, Australia’s finest sparkling wine brand based on Tasmanian grapes, as well as an array at various price points for hardys. The twin problems of cork taint and random oxidation have led to the mass migration of winemakers from cork to screwcap. In 2014, 85 to 90% of bottled wine was sealed with a screwcap.

Answer 234

(432,340 tonnes in 2013) For long Australia’s premier red wine grape in terms of area planted, Shiraz is also now securely planted on the throne. In 2013 it represented 46% of the red wine crush and nearly 24% of the all-grape total. It is grown in virtually every wine region, responding generously to the varying imperatives of terroir and climate. The variety is identical to the syrah of France and has a long Australian history. During the period in which Cabernet Sauvignon came into vogue, the familiarity of Shiraz led to its being treated with a thoroughly undeserved degree of contempt. However, the old dryland (non-irrigated) plantings of the Barossa Valley (producing voluptuously rich, potent wines) and the traditional Hunter Valley wines (which become silky with age) initiated a surge of popularity in both domestic and export markets. If Chardonnay was the ship which launched Australia’s export armada, it is Shiraz which took command in the late 1990s, and continues to lead the fleet. It has led to the proliferation of Shiraz plantings in Old and New Worlds alike, as competitors have sought to match the Australian offering. But Australia has four advantages, three of which cannot be lessened. The first is the bank of old vines from 80 to 160 years old in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, all ungrafted and (usually) dry-grown. The second is the equally long experience vignerons have had in growing and making the wine. The third is an international icon, Grange, which only the northern Rhône can match. Fourth is the Joseph’s Coat of styles from the huge range of terroir and climate, and the emergence of newer regions as promising as Heathcote. Here 500-million-year-old Cambrian greenstone, an igneous rock, has weathered into a vivid red soil which, together with the climatic conditions, seems capable of becoming the greatest area for Shiraz in Australia. Another new horizon for Shiraz is the looming ability to differentiate clones (of this or any other variety). There appear to be a number of different clones, but we do not know whether Busby’s cuttings taken from the Hermitage hillside in 1832 were (as Busby’s daily diary suggests) ‘of three varieties of vines’ (i.e. clones), or fewer, or more. Other importations may have added to clonal diversity, but there is also the belief that some apparently different clones may not be different at all, the difference in growth habit simply representing local terroir, climate, and several generations of viticultural techniques. In the first decade and a half of the 21st century, Shiraz–Viognier blends from cooler-climate regions proliferated, as did Burgundian whole-bunch fermentation.

Answer 235

Looked likely to challenge the supremacy of Shiraz as its production soared from 24,900 tonnes in 1989 to 317,472 tonnes in 2004, but then it dropped back to 249,689 tonnes by 2013. It barely existed in 1966 (100 ha/250 acres, 621 tonnes officially recorded). Its quality epicentre until the end of the 20th century was coonawarra, whence a disproportionate number of Australia’s best Cabernet Sauvignons came initially, but margaret river is now winning the race, eclipsing Coonawarra with its sheer number of outstanding wines. There is no question that the variety performs best in moderately cool regions with a climate similar to that of Bordeaux. Its thick skins and relatively loosely formed bunches provide a natural defence against downy mildew and botrytis, which threaten so many regions during the growing season. Thus margaret river, great southern, wrattonbully, clare valley, and parts of central and southern victoria produced most of the best Cabernets outside Coonawarra. That said, it is widely and successfully planted throughout Australia, except for the Riverland. While occasionally outstanding vintages such as 2002 manage to stand conventional wisdom on its head, the outlook is for the removal (or grafting) of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Riverina and Riverland regions.

Answer 236

The rate of growth of Merlot has outpaced all others since 1990 even though Australia took an unusually long time to follow California’s lead with the variety. In 1990, there were 509 ha/1,257 acres planted (almost 40% of which was not yet bearing) whereas in 2013, 131,575 tonnes were picked. As in California, there seems to be confusion over issues of flavour, structure, and style, well covered in the general discussion of the variety in this book. To the extent that there is consensus in Australia, it lies with structure and style: the wine should be medium-bodied, supple, and with soft, ripe tannins. As for flavour and style, some producers favour savoury, olive tones while others seek sweet, red berry fruit, just as some accept more new oak than others. The marketplace (both domestic and export) apparently regards these issues as irrelevant, and happily soaks up the wine in all of its manifestations.

Answer 237

While Pinot Noir (of which 41,726 tonnes were picked in 2013) has not increased at the same death-defying rate as Merlot, its growth has surprised many. Calculating how much is used in sparkling wine production is not easy, but it is the major part. That said, when grown in the right regions, it can produce table wine of genuine, at times exhilarating, distinction. The most consistent regions are Geelong, Gippsland, Mornington Peninsula, Yarra Valley (all around Melbourne), and Tasmania. The Macedon Ranges and Adelaide Hills each have a handful of excellent producers, the remainder are inconsistent. Australia’s very strict and cumbersome quarantine provisions delayed the introduction of the newest Dijon clones of the now-retired Professor Raymond Bernard, giving New Zealand a distinct competitive advantage, but are now generally available.

Answer 238

Fell from 35,835 tonnes in 2004 to 13,206 tonnes in 2013. This strictly non-premium workhorse cross, used mainly for colour, is in retreat in the face of surplus Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon in Riverland and Riverina, where most Ruby Cabernet is planted. Most is used as a blend component in casks (see boxes) and low-priced, generic, bottled wine.

Answer 239

Fell from 25,935 tonnes in 2004 to 15,857 tonnes in 2013. Until the mid 1960s, 90% of Australia’s red wine was fashioned from the three Rhône varieties: Shiraz, Grenache, and Mourvèdre. Then Cabernet Sauvignon and its Bordeaux handmaidens started to make inroads, followed in due course—though initially less convincingly—by Pinot Noir. Shiraz became less fashionable, Grenache and Mourvèdre even less so. Just when it seemed these varieties would cease to be at all significant, the worldwide interest in the Rhône varieties and wine styles reversed the trend. Century-old, dry-farmed, bush vine Grenache in McLaren Vale (especially) and the Barossa Valley is once more in demand for table wine (previously most went into fortified wines)—see gsm. But, as ever, that portion of the crop produced from high-yielding, irrigated Riverland vineyards will make bland, lollyish wines. While total production has declined (and the drop is mostly in the irrigated regions), the best old-vine grapes from specialist regions such as McLaren Vale and the Barossa Valley are increasingly finding their way into super-premium bottlings, often at high prices.

Answer 240

First hit the statistical radar in 1999, when 110 ha/272 acres were bearing (and well over twice that were still to come into bearing). In the face of overall red wine surplus, the meteoric rate of new plantings slowed with the planted area standing at 1,215 ha/3,000 acres in 2012. It has been planted in many places, in the cooler regions as a blend component with Cabernet Sauvignon, as in the médoc, but its greatest success has come in the Riverland and Riverina. The warm climate guarantees its ripeness, and its strong colour, robust flavour, and substantial tannins result in wines with ample character, even when yields are high. Here it is typically presented as a single varietal wine, and enjoying much success. Riverland’s Kingston Estate is its key champion.

Answer 241

Mourvèdre (often called Mataro) is used in precisely the same fashion as Grenache, and enjoyed the same recovery in the late 20th century, plantings increasing from 583 ha/1,440 acres in 1996 to 875 in 2006 but tapering off since, to 729 ha/1,800 acres in 2012. Other red varieties of importance: Tempranillo is the fastest-rising star, its plantings more than doubling between 2006 and 2012 to 712 ha/1,760 acres, and one wonders why it took so long for a variety which seems so well suited to Australian conditions to gain traction. Sangiovese leads the Italian band, with Barbera, Dolcetto, and Nebbiolo well behind and unlikely to close the gap. Enthusiasts have planted Sangiovese here, there, and everywhere, some with more success than others. A clear pattern is yet to emerge, but there seems to be greater potential than for Nebbiolo, although some superb Nebbiolos have been made, especially in the adelaide hills and pyrenees. Of the newer Italian varieties, Montepulciano and Nero d’Avola hold considerable promise. Cabernet Franc is becalmed; whether it is simply an issue of poor clones is not certain, but the wines generally lack focus except perhaps for some minor examples in margaret river and great southern. Malbec has its moments of glory in both langhorne creek and the clare valley, where it has long formed a synergistic blend with Cabernet Sauvignon. Durif has been gaining ground for precisely the same reasons as Petit Verdot, providing wines with abundant colour and flavour from high yields in warm regions. Lesser varieties such as Tannat, Saperavi, Sagrantino, and Lagrein are now also in commercial production.

Answer 242

(397,239 tonnes in 2013, 22% of the nation’s total crush). In Australia as elsewhere in the world, Chardonnay is seen as the grape of today and of tomorrow. In the first few years of this century, there were predictions of a glut which were not fulfilled. Plantings are still growing, albeit cautiously. In a climate of uncertainty about the desirability of new plantings, Chardonnay stands apart, with positive sentiment certain to see increased tonnages in the years ahead. It is grown in every wine region, bending as much to the wills of the viticulturists and winemakers as to the influence of climate and terroir. The style varies from simple to complex, quality from mediocre to excellent, factors increasingly recognized by a widening range of prices. Fluctuations in supply and demand have seen blends with Semillon, Colombard, Chenin Blanc, and so forth come and go; only Western Australia has persisted with an enduring market for Houghton HWB (previously White Burgundy) and Margaret River Classic.

Answer 243

The sustained increase in Sauvignon Blanc plantings and production (2,334 tonnes in 1995, 43,107 tonnes in 2004, and 98,212 tonnes in 2013) may come as a surprise to those who dislike the wine, mentally relegating it to second rank, but Sauvignon Blanc is now Australia’s second most widely planted white variety. It will be no less surprising to viticultural economists who look at the price/quality competition from New Zealand and, in particular, Marlborough. One explanation is that Marlborough’s success (supplying several of Australia’s most popular wines) has engendered greater interest in and demand for the wine in both domestic and international markets. It also seems that the various interpretations of style (from cold-fermented in stainless steel and early bottled through to complex barrel-fermented wines with a splash of Semillon) all find their mark. The number of producers grows week by week, the apparently insatiable market demand pointing to increased plantings in the years ahead.

Answer 244

(rarely written Sémillon in the New World; 77,187 tonnes in 2013, a sharp fall from 103,171 tonnes in 2004) is in one sense Australia’s traditional counterpart to Shiraz. Yet it is a conundrum. On the one hand, it has failed to make any substantial headway in export markets, arguably because it is not an internationally recognized single varietal: consumers buy white bordeaux, not Semillon/Sauvignon Blanc. In the domestic market, mature Hunter Valley Semillon (anywhere between five and 20-plus years old) has an ardent following in Sydney, but not elsewhere. Yet despite this, its production for high-quality dry wine continues to be strong: it is more than twice as important (in volume terms, at least) as Riesling. Historically in the Riverland and Riverina, where it produces large crops and wine superior to Trebbiano or Muscat Gordo Blanco, it was important, but most of the recent fall in plantings has been in these regions. At the other end of the scale, the best Semillons are 100% varietal, including unoaked versions from the Hunter with an alcohol level of 10.5 to 11%, and those fermented in French oak, with or without a percentage of Sauvignon Blanc, from the Adelaide Hills and Margaret River at more conventional alcohol levels. The Semillon from the latter region, in particular, bears little or no resemblance to Hunter Valley Semillon, being much higher in alcohol (13 to 13.5%), richer, and more flavoursome in its youth.

Answer 245

Australia’s muscat of alexandria (70,564 tonnes in 2013) provides a more positively flavoured wine for cheap ‘cask’ blends than does sultana, but production is not likely to increase substantially (part is used for drying and part for grape juice). Muscat Gordo Blanco, in tandem with Gewurztraminer and Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, has a new-found use with the fashion for lightly sparkling, low-alcohol, slightly sweet wines labelled moscato, which in Australia can be made from any of the Muscat-flavoured varieties.

Answer 246

(66,852 tonnes in 2013). The ability of this variety to retain acidity has the same attractions in the warmer regions of Australia as in California, although its plantings are on nowhere near the same scale as those in California. The fifth most widely planted white variety in Australia, it shares its fortunes with those of Semillon, although it does not have any pretensions to the quality Semillon at its best can offer. Rather, it has a prodigious yield (routinely over 130 hl/ha) while retaining high levels of natural acidity, making it an ideal component in blended white wines sold in casks. Its strongholds are the Riverland and Riverina.

Answer 247

With 62,228 tonnes crushed in 2013 and growing steadily, Pinot Gris/Grigio has quickly risen to be Australia’s sixth most widely planted white wine variety. Vinified either as an early-harvested, fairly neutral style loosely modelled on northern Italian Pinot Grigio, or picked riper to make a richer, more spicy, exotic and textural wine loosely based on the Alsace Pinot Gris style, it has become a wine of such importance that it is no longer considered an alternative variety. It is grown widely in the eastern states (but hardly at all in Western Australia, thanks to quarantine laws) and performs especially well on the mornington peninsula.

Answer 248

(31,310 tonnes by 2013) will surely never regain the pre-eminent position it lost to Chardonnay in 1992 (and other white varieties since that time) but the long-heralded Riesling renaissance may just be at hand, even if the statistics need careful interpretation. In terms of tonnes crushed, the high point came in 1985, with 46,481, the low point in 2000 with 26,800. But during this time Riesling was being removed from regions to which it was not suited (notably the Riverland and Riverina). New plantings in appropriate regions were taking place, but there was a time lag as they came into bearing. The near-monopoly of the clare and eden valleys for top-quality Riesling has been challenged by the great southern and, on a smaller scale, by tasmania, but there will be no seismic shift in the foreseeable future.

Answer 249

(25,967 tonnes in 2004, down to 11,582 in 2013). Mid-19th-century writings were consistent in their view that this was Australia’s most valuable white variety, the counterpart, as it were, of Shiraz. It was first imported in 1825 from Madeira by the Australian Agriculture Company, and on several other occasions thereafter. Quite why Australia should have embarked on an enthusiastic but solo (with the exception of Portugal) programme of making table wine with it is a mystery. It is a wine suited to everyday use from a vine that thrives in warm climates and yields well but not prodigiously, producing a popular, easy wine for relatively early drinking.

Answer 250

Marsanne has been grown at Tahbilk in the goulburn valley for well over 100 years, having been taken there from Yeringberg in the yarra valley (in turn having come from Switzerland). Until relatively recently, Tahbilk’s was the largest single-vineyard planting in the world, but the Rhône’s sudden popularity in the US and elsewhere has seen it lose that title. Much smaller plantings of Roussanne are mainly used to blend with Marsanne. Viognier is exciting a great deal of interest, and in terms of area planted rivalled Verdelho by 2013. While most goes to make white wine, winemakers treasure it for the magic it works when co-fermented with Shiraz. Gewurztraminer has been around for a long time; blended with Riesling and made off-dry, it rightly inhabits Asian restaurant wine lists. Delicate—perhaps too delicate—dry, unblended versions are made on Tasmania and in the cooler parts of Victoria. Savagnin, Grüner Veltliner, Fiano, Vermentino, Arneis, Cortese, Garganega, Petit Manseng, Picolit, Schönburger, and Chenin Blanc are but some of the more obscure white wine varieties also in commercial production.

Answer 251

A common geographical designation found on lower-priced wines is the barely helpful south eastern australia, which takes in part of Queensland, all of New South Wales, all of Victoria, and that part of South Australia in which it is possible to grow grapes. In practice, it often signifies a wine made from fruit grown in areas as unglamorous as Riverland and/or Riverina. Australia has had the major components of an appellation system since 1963, initially through the framework of state legislation, but since 1987 effectively embodied in federal law, and since 1990 actively enforced by the official Australian Grape and Wine Authority (formerly the Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation) through the Label Integrity Programme (LIP). LIP annually carries out both general and specific audits, variously covering regions, varieties, and individual wineries, utilizing detailed production records which wineries must keep. This is designed to ensure that where a variety or a region is specified, at least 85% of the wine is of that variety and/or from that region; that 85% is of the stated vintage; and, if more than one variety or region are specified, that they are listed in descending order. Thus Cabernet–Shiraz means the wine has more Cabernet Sauvignon grapes than Shiraz; Shiraz–Cabernet the reverse. The missing link—a legislative definition of the boundaries of each region spurred on by the wine agreement signed between the eu and Australia in 1994—was completed in the late 1990s with the passing of regulations under the Federal Wine and Brandy Corporation Act. This has provided the framework for the methodical mapping of Australia into zones, regions, and subregions, all glorying under the ultimately bureaucratic and infinitely ugly term Geographical Indications (GI or GIs). By 1996, each state had divided itself into zones: New South Wales has eight, Victoria six, South Australia eight, and Western Australia five. There was—and is—no requirement of geographic or climatic particularity, no rules for the drawing of the zone boundaries. Simple pragmatism ruled, although South Australia managed to complicate matters by introducing a super zone, and Western Australia came up with a series of utterly confusing and seemingly meaningless zone names. Compared with that which followed, it was a relatively simple and speedy process. The legislation requires that a region is a single tract of land that is discrete and homogeneous in its grape growing attributes to a degree that is measurable; that it usually produces at least 500 tonnes of grapes a year; that it includes at least five differently owned vineyards each of at least 5 ha/12 acres; and that it may reasonably be regarded as a region. A subregion must also be a single tract of land, comprising at least five independently owned wine grape vineyards of at least 5 ha each, and must usually produce 500 tonnes of wine grapes in a year. However, a subregion is required to be substantially discrete within the region and have substantial homogeneity in grape growing attributes over the area. The ever-increasing spread of vineyards means new regions will continue to be created. The identifying of subregions is proceeding more slowly and thoughtfully; as of 2014, only 14 had been registered, notably in Western Australia’s Great Southern region, the Hunter Valley, and Adelaide Hills. By 2014, 65 regions had been finally determined, and work continues on others. The once widespread but now largely discredited use of generic names such as claret, burgundy, champagne, port, and sherry has all but disappeared under the terms of the 1994 EU wine agreement. Such names were never permitted on export labels anyway. Australian Sherry and Port have almost vanished; what was once Sherry is now apera and red fortified wines will be sold as Tawny and Vintage. What was formerly Liqueur Tokay is now topaque or, more rarely, Dessert Muscadelle. For Dessert Muscat and Topaque, the voluntary categories of Classic, Grand, and Rare are now in common usage.

Answer 252

The structure of the wine sector, measured by the size of individual companies or groups, underwent profound changes in the first few years of the 21st century, and more are sure to come. The largest was the assimilation of Hardys by constellation of the US to form the world’s largest wine group. Soon afterwards, Constellation sold its Australian wine interests to local venture capitalists Champ Equity (see accolade). The most publicized change was the acquisition by Southcorp of Rosemount, and the financial haemorrhage which ensued. What seemed to be the most successful at the time was the 2000 acquisition of Beringer in California (by brewers Foster’s who went on to swallow Southcorp/Rosemount) to form Beringer Blass, with the disappearance of the Mildara name. In 2011, Foster’s separated its wine division from its brewing division and renamed it treasury wine Estates. The 2002 merger of Simeon Wines and Brian McGuigan Wines, and the acquisition by that group of Miranda Wines, Yaldara, and later Nepenthe, lifted McGuigan into the top four, where it remained in 2014—although in 2008 it was renamed, rather curiously, Australian Vintage Limited. Evans & Tate transformed itself from a small to medium winery based in the Margaret River to Australia’s eighth-largest wine group by acquiring Cranswick Estate and was then taken over by McWilliam’s in 2007. Arguably, the greatest success story was that of Riverina-based Casella Wines, nowhere in the top 20 companies in 2000, and by 2014 third-largest thanks to its enormous sales of yellow tail into the United States and elsewhere. The sale of wine within Australia is relatively simple, and notably free of the restraints which apply in the United States, unless it be the all-up tax on retail wine sales of over 40%. Movement between the states is unhindered, and wine producers may sell to whomever they wish (distributors, retailers, or the public), wherever they wish. One of the particular freedoms of Australia is the byo restaurant, ‘BYO’ standing for Bring Your Own. In Victoria, ‘Licensed and BYO’ restaurants which generously encourage patrons to bring their own wine are common. This ethic spreads across all restaurants in Australia. Most will permit patrons to bring their own wine upon payment of a corkage fee, if the request is made in appropriate fashion.

Answer 253

Many WA Doctors

Answer 254

A maritime climate. It's influenced by the Pacific Ocean. Though some parts are Mediterranean.

Answer 255

Gravelly Sandy loam

Answer 256

Yallingup: Lighter, cherry- strawberry wines with fine tannin Wilyabrup: More violets, blackcurrent, dark chocolate, ironstone and silky tannins Walcliffe/ Karridale: More savoury blueberry sage flavours with stronger tannin

Answer 257

More Bordeaux than Napa- vegetal

Answer 258

American oak barrels

Answer 259

A large region in sth-Wst, Vic. It was settled as a sheep grazing area. 1960s Seppelt planted the Drumborg Vineyard. Extends from the Hopkins River to east of Sth Australia. The stretch between Hamilton and Portland is the main vineyard area within the region.

Answer 260

Most strongly continental climate in Australia, high diurnal temp range. Cool harvest season. Quite a varied topography. Undulating Hills and distant views of the Snowy Mthns forming a picturesque backdrop to many of the vineyards. Slope, aspect and air drainage are all important. Soils in the district are typically brownish, shallow clay loans, often overlaying shale and clay

Answer 261

Great Southern Range sub region. 60kms inland from the Sthrn Ocean. The region spans 40kms nth to sth and 20kms est to wst, hugging the banks of the Frankland River. Altitude is between 250 and 400m above sea level. The warm days and cool nights influenced by the cold winds from the Sthrn Ocean are ideally suited to Riesling. Situated far from population and industrial centres, the region offers a pristine grape growing environment

Answer 262

The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Prior to the the common variety was Black Cluster (a common wall variety) sourced from England and South Africa

Answer 263

James Busby’s collection. This included the first scyras (Shiraz) vines. The Penfolds, Ryries and Reynells all sourced there material from here.

Answer 264

Between 1860 and the start of World War 1

Answer 265

Hunter Valley, because of Maurice O’Shea.

Answer 266

A visit by Institute of Masters of Wines

Answer 267

Freedom Vines, | Shiraz, Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 268

Shiraz, Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 269

Old Vine Grenache | Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 270

Old Vine Semillon | Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 271

The Old Garden Vineyard Mourvèdre, Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 272

Stonegarden Vineyard Grenache and Unidentified varieties Eden Valley, SA

Answer 273

Hill of Grace Vineyard Shiraz Eden Valley, SA

Answer 274

1860 Vines Shiraz Tahbilk, Victoria

Answer 275

Attunga Vineyard Shiraz Clare Valley, SA

Answer 276

Old Hillside (now Old Patch) Vineyard Shiraz Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 277

Nursery Block Vineyard Shiraz/ Pinot Noir/ Pinot Meunier Great Western, Victoria

Answer 278

Concongella Vineyard Shiraz Great Western, Victoria

Answer 279

Johann Georg Vineyard Shiraz Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 280

4 Acres Vineyard Shiraz Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 281

Old Hill Vineyard Shiraz Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 282

Block 42 Cabernet Sauvignon Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 283

Metala Vineyard | Langhorne Creek, SA

Answer 284

Hoffman Dallwitz Vineyard Shiraz Eden Valley, SA

Answer 285

Tri- Centenary Vineyard Grenache Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 286

Block 6 Shiraz McLaren Vale, SA

Answer 287

8 Acres Vineyard Shiraz Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 288

Old Bastard Vineyard Shiraz Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 289

Shiraz/ Cabernet Sauvignon and Mataro | Clare Valley, SA

Answer 290

Nuriootpa Vineyard Shiraz/ Cabernet Sauvignon Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 291

Undoolya Vineyard | Coonawarra, SA

Answer 292

Anderson Vineyard Grenache/ Shiraz Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 293

The Stocks Vineyard Shiraz McLaren Valley, SA

Answer 294

Aberfeldy Vineyard Shiraz Clare Valley, SA

Answer 295

Rosewood Vineyard Muscadelle Rutherglen, Victoria

Answer 296

Johnno’s Vineyard (Long Flat Vineyards) Semillon/ Shiraz Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 297

HVD Vineyard Semillon/ Chardonnay Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 298

Dead Arm Vineyard Shiraz McLaren Vale, SA

Answer 299

Flaxman’s Valley Road Vineyard Shiraz Eden Valley, SA

Answer 300

Mount Edelstone Vineyard Shiraz Eden Valley, SA

Answer 301

Old Block Vineyard Shiraz Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 302

Family Vineyard Shiraz Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 303

Shiraz | McLaren Vale, SA

Answer 304

Mothervine Block Pinot Noir Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 305

1962 Penfolds Bin 60A Coonawarra Cab Sauv

Answer 306

Vintage Port, SA

Answer 307

Henry 2 Full Bodied Dry Red (Pinot hermitage) | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 308

Vintage Port | Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 309

Sparkling Burgundy | Great Western, SA

Answer 310

Kalimna Cabernet Sauvignon | Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 311

Claret, South Australia

Answer 312

Bin 1 Grange Hermitage | Various, South Australia

Answer 313

Bin 4 Grange Hermitage | Various, South Australia

Answer 314

St Henri Claret | Auldana, South Australia

Answer 315

Type J34 Great Western Claret | Great Western, Victoria

Answer 316

Richard Hermitage Shiraz, | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 317

Private Bin Pokolbin Dry Red Shiraz | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 318

``` Michael Hermitage (Shiraz) Coonawarra, SA ```

Answer 319

Bin 1970 Porphyry | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 320

Pedro Ximinez Dessert Wine | Griffith, NSW

Answer 321

Bin 1590 Hunter River Burgundy | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 322

Metala Cabernet Shiraz | Langhorne Creek, SA

Answer 323

The Signature Cabernet Shiraz Barossa, SA

Answer 324

Bin 60A Coonawarra Cabernet- Kalimna Shiraz | Various, SA

Answer 325

Peppermint Patty Cabernet Sauvignon | Coonawarra, SA

Answer 326

Bin 3100 Hunter River Burgundy | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 327

Bin 620 Cabernet Shiraz | Various, South Australia

Answer 328

D’Arenberg Red Burgundy McLaren Vale, SA

Answer 329

Bin 7 Coonawarra Cabernet- Kalimna Shiraz South Australia

Answer 330

Bin 3875 Chablis (Semillon) | Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 331

Vat 47 Pinot/ Chardonnay Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 332

Bin 95 Grange Hermitage Various, South Australia

Answer 333

Bin DWB13 Watervale Riesling Clare Valley, South Australia

Answer 334

Cabernet Sauvignon | Margaret River, WA

Answer 335

Black Label Cabernet Sauvignon/ Shiraz Various, South Australia

Answer 336

Vat 6 Pinot Noir Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 337

Vintage Port | McLaren Vale, SA

Answer 338

Vintage Port | South Australia

Answer 339

Cabernets | Yarra Valley, Vic

Answer 340

Cabernet Shiraz | Coonawarra, South Australia

Answer 341

Cabernet Sauvignon | Pyrenees, Victoria

Answer 342

Shiraz, | Macedon, Victoria

Answer 343

St Georges Cabernet Sauvignon Coonawarra, South Australia

Answer 344

Bin 80A Coonawarra- Kalimna Cabernet- Shiraz Coonawarra, South Australia

Answer 345

Australian Sauternes Botrytis Semillon | Griffith, NSW

Answer 346

Bin 820 Cabernet Shiraz Coonawarra, South Australia

Answer 347

John Riddoch Cabernet Sauvignon | Coonawarra, South Australia

Answer 348

Cabernet Sauvignon | Margaret River, WA

Answer 349

Graveyard Vineyard Shiraz, Hunter Valley, NSW

Answer 350

Hill of Grace | Eden Valley, SA

Answer 351

Art Series Chardonnay Margaret River, WA

Answer 352

Shiraz | Barossa, SA

Answer 353

Bin 90A Cabernet Shiraz Coonawarra, Barossa Valley, SA

Answer 354

Bin 920 Cabernet Shiraz Coonawarra, SA