Attitudes

Question 1

Attitude definition

Answer 1

can be defined as a person’s evaluations of various aspects of their social world

The focus of which is known as an attitude object

This could include attitudes towards other people, food, political parties, social issues, films, TV programmes and so on

Question 2

What are the attitudes we hold like?

Answer 2

given that attitudes can be favourable or unfavourable they are sometimes also referred to as preferences

However must attitudes be negative or positive?

What is your attitude towards dentists?

In many cases the attitudes that we hold may be ambivalent

Or in other words we can hold both positive and negative attitudes towards the same attitude object

Question 3

values vs attitudes

Answer 3

values for example refer to stable enduring beliefs we have about life overall

Unlike attitudes these beliefs are not just applied to specific objects or situations

So for example an individual’s beliefs about equality are more a reflection of their values than their attitudes

Question 4

values influence attitudes

Answer 4

if someone has a strong belief in equality (i.e. a strong value) they are more likely to have a negative attitude about a situation where someone is discriminated against

It can though be difficult on occasions to determine the difference between an attitude and a value

Not surprisingly both values and attitudes influence our behaviour

For example values and attitudes about health and fitness can be a predictor of alcohol consumption (Homer and Kahle, 1988

Question 5

Breckler 1984 describe the ABC model example

Answer 5

Affect Warm feelings toward kitten

Cognition Belief that kittens are entertaining

Behaviour Play with kittens(or watch cat videos on YouTube)

Question 6

What components are in the abc MODEL

Answer 6

Cognitive – Our thoughts on the positive or negative aspects of the attitude object

Affective – Our positive or negative emotions towards the attitude object

Behavioural – Whether we approach or avoid an attitude object

Also known as whether we respond favourably or unfavourably

Question 7

problem wirth abc model

Answer 7

one reason being that it does not always appear to fully explain behaviour

Question 8

attitude complexity

Answer 8

also vary in terms of complexity and consistency

For example you may have a simple attitude towards kittens but a complex attitude towards a topic such as censorship in the media

If the your attitudes towards different parts of the attitude object are all in the same direction (e.g. positive or negative) then this means they are consistent

The more complex and consistent an attitude is the stronger it tends to be (Judd and Lusk, 1984)What might it suggest if an attitude is inconsistent?

Question 9

attitude function types of function

Answer 9

the knowledge function

Attitudes are schemas which help us organise complex information about the world

The utilitarian function

Attitudes help us obtain rewards and avoid social sanctions and other punishments, as well affirming group membership (Nienhuis et al, 2001

the value expressive function

Attitudes may serve as a way for us to express our values, with attitudes that are strongly based on values being more resistant to change (Maio and Olson, 2000)

The ego defensive function

Positive attitudes about ourselves may protect us from psychological threats, such as doubts or low self-esteem Typified by the numerous websites and books that promise to help you gain a ‘positive self-attitude’ Many of which have very little basis in research

Question 10

whats the mere exposure effect

Answer 10

research suggests that simply being exposed to something can change your attitude, often in a more positive way (Zajonc, 1968)

A phenomena used extensively by advertisers

This process suggests that people can form attitudes with very little actual conscious thought about the attitude object

Bornstein and D’Agostino (1992) argue that this effect is caused by people assuming that they must like familiar objects more

Question 11

condtioning - attitudes

Answer 11

social learning is a strong determinant of our behaviour and cognitions, including attitudes

Classical conditioning suggests that if a negative response is associated with a particular stimulus then a negative attitude may form towards that stimulus

Krosnick et al (1992) argue that this often occurs outside of the awareness of the learner, in a process called subliminal learning

Same basic principle as subliminal advertising, but different in executio

Question 12

instrumental conditioning - attitudes

Answer 12

attitudes may also be formed through instrumental conditioning

This is where a behaviour is followed by a positive outcome, which makes you more likely to repeat that behaviour in future

If therefore you express an attitude that receives a positive response from those around you then you are more likely to express that attitude again in future

Which raises interesting questions on if this in turn makes your attitude stronge

Question 13

observational learning

Answer 13

as demonstrated by researchers such as Bandura we are strongly influenced in our behaviour and attitudes by our observation of those around us

It has been noted that children for example may often express very negative attitudes about other ethnic groups that they have never actually met, simply because of the attitudes that other people have around them (Aboud, 2005)

Fortunately experience can seem to counter this effect

Question 14

heider 1958 attitude balance

Answer 14

argues that we are driven to hold attitudes that are balanced

That is attitudes which are consistent with each other and do not contradict each otherIf attitudes are unbalanced then we will try to find ways to balance these

So if you don’t like a football team that your friend supports you may either reduce your negative attitude towards that football team or your positive attitude towards your friend

Question 15

social representqtions theory

Answer 15

as noted by attitude balance theory our attitudes are influenced by those around us

Social representations theory (Moscovici, 1988) expands on this and argues that attitudes are built up by groups of people through social interactions

For instance a group living in an area of London that has high levels of poverty may form a social representation of wealthier Londoners (and vice versa)

However this theory has been criticised on several point

Question 16

Measuring attitudes

Answer 16

are you consciously aware of what all your attitudes are?
Can we simply ask people what their attitudes are?

Do you necessarily have an opinion until someone asks you?Attitude scales are often used to measure attitudes

This involves presenting participants with a series of statements and asking them how much the agree or disagree

this method of measuring attitudes is relatively quick and easy

However is it always appropriate?

Observational research can be used to infer attitudes from behaviours

For example determining if a reported attitude of belief in equality is actually backed up by behaviour in the work place

In addition ‘lie scales’ may be included to establish if people are just responding in a way which makes them look good

‘I am nice to everyone all the time

Question 17

indirect measures

Answer 17

one techniques that can be used to discourage honest answers is the bogus pipeline procedure

Although this does raise a few ethical issues

In addition some researchers (e.g. Cacioppoand Petty (1979) have used electromyography(EMG) to measure subtle contractions of facial muscles, which might give an indication of attitudes

More recently developments in brain imaging and social neuroscience have been used to explore which parts of the brain activate depending on whether an attitude is positive or negative

Question 18

implicit and explicit attitudes

Answer 18

whilst implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious) attitudes are usually positively correlated there can be exceptions to this

People may form implicit attitudes before they form explicit attitudes (Gregg et al, 2006)

Implicit attitudes are also more likely to be low in social desirability (Degner and Wentura, 2008

)They may also influence behaviour

For example Dovidio et al (2002) found that implicit racial attitudes were reflected in participant’s body language when interacted with people of different races

Question 19

impicit and explicit attitudes - Gawronski et al 2011

Answer 19

have put forward the associative-propositional evaluation (APE) model, which argues that implicit and explicit attitudes involve separate mental processes

Implicit attitudes are created by associative processes, such as the similarity between one thing and another

Also referred to as transference by Freud

Explicit attitude on the other hand arise from propositional processes, and refer to whether the implicit attitudes we have are evidenced by the information that we have

If this model is correct then it has implications for the ways in which we may try to challenge negative attitudes

Question 20

cognitive dissonance

Answer 20

of course the case that our behaviours do not always match our attitudes

If your friend spent the last of their money on a new outfit would you tell them how awful you thought it made them look?

Cognitive dissonance refers to when we are aware that our behaviour is not consistent with our attitudes
To reduce this dissonance people may change their attitudes

Cooper and Brehm (1971) further argue that for cognitive dissonance to occur the individual has to realise that the inconsistency could have negative consequences

Question 21

cognitive dissonance pt 2

Answer 21

what if though the attitude we hold is a strong one and we do not want to change it?

For example if someone has a strong view on abortion but provides emotional support to a friend who makes a decision the person doesn’t agree with
In these instances people may try to address their cognitive dissonance by engaging in self-affirmation
That is they remind themselves of the positive aspects of their behaviour and the importance of their attitudes (Elliot and Devine, 1994)
Or has also been noted they may use other means to reduce the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance, such as alcohol use (Steele et al, 1981)