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1.2 social 2 > attitudes > Flashcards

attitudes Flashcards

1
Q

definitions:
prejudice
interpersonal attraction
self-esteem

A

prejudice = negative attitude towards outgroups

interpersonal attraction = attitudes towards specific others

self-esteem = attitude towards oneself

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2
Q

attitude object

A

the person, place, issue, thing towards which we hold an attitude

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3
Q

attitudes definitions:
single component (unidimensional)
tri-component/tripartite

A

single:

  • generally focussed on affect
  • refers to general, enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or issue

tri:

  • ABC
  • affective - pos and neg feelings toward object
  • behavioural - tendencies to act toward object
  • cognitive - beliefs and thoughts about object
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4
Q

measuring attitudes - self-report measures

A

self-report:

  • interviews, focus groups
  • attitude scales - likert scales, semantic differentials (rate between two opposite words e.g. good to bad, pleasant to unpleasant - on a point scale)
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5
Q

measuring attitudes - covert measures (2)

A

behavioural:

  • based on observation e.g. eye contact, posture, approach, avoidance measures, seating distance (ask to put out 2 chairs for self and someone else and see how close together they put the chairs depending on who the other is)

affective:

  • implicit association test (IAT) - faster to classify things related in memory than unrelated
  • have positive on one key and negative on the other
  • have to categorise whether the image shown is a cat or dog, or whether word is positive or negative
  • if you like cats and cats are on the same button as for a positive word, you will react faster to it than if it is on the same button for the negative word
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6
Q

measuring attitudes - physiological measures

A

pupillary response (dilation and constriction) - small = don’t like, large = like

facial electromyography (facial EMG)

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7
Q

facial EMG

A

facial electromyography

electrodes measure facial muscle activity

activation of zygomatic major muscle (cheeks) when smiling
activation of corrugator supercilli muscle when frowning

these indicate positive or negative emotions

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8
Q

implicit vs explicit attitude

A

implicit = do not initially have conscious access and activation cannot be controlled

explicit = aware of these, can report them and control the expression of them

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9
Q

approaches to how attitudes are formed (3)

A

behavioural:

  • mere-exposure
  • evaluative conditioning

cognitive:

  • self-perception
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10
Q

mere-exposure effect

A

Zajonc (1968)

tendency to develop more positive feelings toward more familiar objects

e.g. in 1967 a small town in Ecuador elected a foot powder for mayor - leaflets distributed

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11
Q

mere exposure effect - advertising study

A

Fang et al (2007)

participants read through web articles

some had a banner advert at the top of the screen - participants exposed different numbers of times

rated their reaction more positively when they saw it 20 times vs 5 times vs 0 times

increased positivity when they see it more

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12
Q

mere-exposure effect - interpersonal attraction study

A

Moreland and Beach (1992)

students rated women who had attended their class as more attractive when they had attended more

15 classes vs 10 vs 5 attended

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13
Q

evaluative conditioning

A

exposure to neutral stimulus that appears close in time with an affective stimulus makes attitude to the neutral stimulus more similar to affective stimulus

e.g. pair neutral with negative makes neutral think about more negatively

e.g. specific food is neutral, throwing up is negative, if you eat the food and throw up you’ll view it negatively

similar to classical conditioning

the basis behind cigarette packaging

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14
Q

use of evaluative conditioning in marketing/advertising

A

pairing a celebrity with positive associations with the product (neutral) makes the product seem more positive

Biegler and Vargas (2016)
participants rated a fictitious anti-flu drug as more effective, safe, and beneficial when paired with positive than negative images

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15
Q

use of evaluative conditioning with promoting healthy eating

A

Hollands et al (2011)
participants showed more negative implicit attitudes to energy-dense snack foods after images of snack food were paired with images of potential health consequences

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16
Q

self-perception theory

A

Bem (1965)

form attitudes by observing our behaviour and the circumstances in which it occurs and making inferences (attributions)

17
Q

self-perception study examples (2) + facial feedback hypothesis

A

Strack et al (1998)
participants evaluated cartoons with a pen in their teeth (more smiling face shape) or lips
said it was funnier when holding pen in teeth

  • facial feedback hypothesis = facial activity can influence affective responses

Ito et al (2006)
holding pen in teeth when looking at photos of black men showed significantly less implicit bias on the IAT (implicit associations test) than those who did the same looking at pics of white men

18
Q

Katz functional approach to attitudes - why we have attitudes

A

Katz (1960)
understand formation in terms of the needs they serve
different motivations underlie different attitudes - unlikely to be any single cause of a specific type of attitude

19
Q

Katz - 4 key functions of attitudes

A

utilitarian/instrumental
ego-defensive
value-expressive
knowledge/cognitive economy

20
Q

katz - utilitarian / instrumental function of attitudes

A

attitudes exist as they are useful

motivated to get rewards and avoid punishment
therefore develop attitudes to reach goals

positive attitude to political party that will put your own best interest first - e.g. high earners want to be taxed less, low earners want higher tax that’ll be spent on them

negative attitudes to things that get in the way of goals e.g. negative attitude towards peanuts if you are allergic

21
Q

katz - ego-defensive function of attitudes

A

protect our self-image
protect from unacceptable internal and external threats

22
Q

katz - ego-defensive function of attitudes - study

A

students received info suggesting that their self-image as a ‘serious student’ was incorrect or correct

students asked to rate the message they got

self-image inconsistent info (threatening message) rated it more negatively than self-image consistent info

more negative evaluation = greater message discounting (think it isn’t important) = source derogation (think the source isn’t credible)

this protects own view/image of the self by coming up with reasons why the message is irrelevant and not true or important

functional purpose of attitudes which change to protect view of self

23
Q

katz - value-expressive function of attitudes

A

helps express values that are integral to self-concept

help communicate who we are
e.g. positive attitude towards LGBT because you value equality

24
Q

katz - knowledge/cognitive economy function of attitudes

A

attitudes act as schemas

help organise into an give sense of predictability in complex social world

frame of reference for new info to streamline processing

25
Q

attitude change - definition

A

modification of individuals general evaluative perception of a stimulus or set of stimuli

26
Q

persuasion - definition

A

active attempt to change a person’s attitude through information

27
Q

models of persuasion and persuasion techniques - 2 ways to change attitudes

A

those that model/try to change attitudes through:

  1. communication
  2. changing behaviour
28
Q

changing attitudes through communication - examples (4)

A

examples of persuasive communications:

  • adverts
  • arguments
  • debates
  • informational messages
29
Q

yale approach to persuasion - 3 elements of communication to consider to change attitudes

A

who says what to whom and with what effect

3 elements:

  • source - who is trying to persuade
  • message - what is the content of the message and how it is expressed
  • audience - who is the message targeted to
30
Q

yale approach: source characteristics (2)

A

attractiveness:
more attractive sources are more persuasive than less

credibility:
high credibility sources are more persuasive

e.g. toothpaste adverts use young, attractive dentists for both attractiveness and credibility

31
Q

yale approach: message characteristics - fear appeals

A

fear appeals - persuasive messages that arouse fear - commonly used in public health campaigns

used on cigarette packaging:
* some people don’t agree and say it infantilises people and wont actually help

however this was wrong and they are actually effective in changing attitudes and behaviours

however in some cases fear appeals backfire when people feel manipulated or like their freedom is being inflicted upon - too controlling, brings feelings of anger - therefore reduced persuasion

therefore nuanced use and language of fear appeals

32
Q

yale approach: audience characteristics (3)

A

individual differences

need for cognition:
tendency to engage in effortful cognition
e.g., Cacioppo et al. (1983) found that argument quality had a larger effect on persuasion in individuals high in need for cognition)

self-monitoring:
DeBono, Leavitt, & Backus (2003)
high self-monitors (often introspective) were more positively influenced by attractive product packaging than low self-monitors

regulatory focus/fit:
people have a ‘promotion’ or ‘prevention’ focus
promotion = motivated by gaining positives
prevention = motivated by avoiding negatives
therefore message needs to fit with the regulatory orientation of the message
e.g., Cesario et al. (2004) found enhanced persuasion when there was high regulatory fit
women are more prevention focused in general (e.g. beauty ads for wrinkle prevention)

33
Q

flaws with changing attitudes with communication

A

lots of differing results by different studies
different on different variables - inconsistent

need to shift focus from whether things increased persuasion, instead look at process of persuasion

34
Q

elaboration-likelihood model

A

petty and cacioppo (1986)

persuasion occurs by 2 routes, depends on person and situation as to which they go through

route depends on elaboration likelihood

central route:

  • more effortful processing - high elaboration likelihood
  • persuaded by central cues - e.g. scientific evidence, customer reviews - relating to argument strength
  • strong argument = persuasion
  • weak argument = no persuasion

peripheral route:

  • less effortful, more automatic
  • peripheral cues - e.g. heurstics - ways to quickly form judgements, rule of thumb
  • cues present = persuasion
  • cues absent = no persuasion
35
Q

motivation and ability to engage in central route of elaboration-likelihood model

A

more likely to take central (effortful) route:

motivation:
negative mood
high personal involvement
high need for cognition

ability:
sufficient time to process message
sufficient cognitive resources
not distracted

1.2 social 2 (13 decks)

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