Attitudes

Question 1

Discuss the study of attitudes

Answer 1

Core area of social psychology
Most frequent term to appear in experimental and theoretical literature as they serve a lot of functions
Research into attitude function is arguably the fastest growing area of attitude research

Question 2

What are attitudes?

Answer 2

Allport (1935) = attitudes are a mental and neural state of readiness organised through experience and directly impacting actions
Attitudes are evaluations (eg. positive/negative, favourable/unfavourable, good/bad, harmful/beneficial) which convey thoughts and feelings about attitude referents

Question 3

Discuss functionality of attitudes

Answer 3

Attitudes are functional, making them indispensable as they serve us in ways we couldn’t do without

Question 4

What is an attitude referent?

Answer 4

The thing individuals have an attitude towards (eg. object, behaviour, group of people etc.)

Question 5

Are attitudes evaluations?

Answer 5

Yes, they convey what we think and how we feel about an attitude referent.

Question 6

Discuss the tripartite model of attitudes

Answer 6

There are 3 classes which can reveal attitudes:
Cognitive (thoughts/beliefs)
Affective (feelings/emotions)
Behavioural (overt behaviour)
These 3 components can be consistent or inconsistent, leading to ambivalent attitudes
This models with 3 components is not necessarily the best

Question 7

Give an example of a cognitive response

Answer 7

Beliefs are cognitive associations, giving a link between an attitude referent and its attributes, leading to positive or negative evaluation.
eg. eating a low fat diet is healthy (+)
or eating a low fat diet is expensive(-)

Question 8

Give examples of affective responses

Answer 8

How you feel can reveal attitudes, this is different from cognitions
eg. eating a low diet makes me feel good (+) or eating a low fat diet makes me feel depressed (-)

Question 9

Give examples of behavioural responses

Answer 9

Overt actions
Attitude towards a referent influences how likelihood of engaging in behaviours
eg. eating low far foods indicates positive evaluation of this behaviour whilst eating high fat foods indicates eating low fat foods is evaluated negatively

Question 10

Discuss ambivalent attitudes

Answer 10

People can hold many attitudes at the same time for the same objects.
Components of an attitude can be inconsistent or conflict can occur within components
If conflict can’t be resolved they feel ambivalent
Easier to change as negative consequences are less certain but positive consequences are more proximal and rewards guaranteed.
However, tend to be more unstable and are less predictive of behaviour

Question 11

Discuss univalent attitudes

Answer 11

Where everything is in unison
Tends to be better at predicting behaviour
Less easy to change

Question 12

Discuss limitations of the tripartite model

Answer 12

Early correlational studies offered support but later more sophisticated analysis provided only weak or no support
Research suggests cognition and affect are more relevant and behaviour is different = two-component model may be better
Maybe behaviours influence/ are influenced by attitudes but aren’t attitudes themselves
A major function of attitudes is to help guide behaviour

Question 13

Discuss use of the tripartite model

Answer 13

Provides a useful conceptual framework to express the notion evaluation can be manifested through different types of responses
Allows consideration of how things influence each other
Helps psychologists conceptualise how attitudes are formed

Question 14

How are attitudes formed?

Answer 14

3 processes rather than components:
Cognitive learning when gain information (from direct or indirect experience) about the attitude referent to form beliefs
Affective processes with classical conditioning = conditioned response = positive or negative attitude
Behavioural processes involving operant conditioning = learn positive/negative outcomes of behaviours = evaluative responses

Question 15

Discuss self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)

Answer 15

People infer their attitudes based on prior behaviour, considering the conditions under which they perform this
Attitude formation occurs when prior behaviour can’t be explained externally
and is volitional

Question 16

Discuss Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)

Answer 16

Observational learning where positively/negatively reinforced behaviour = positive/negative attitude formation

Question 17

Discuss balance theory (Heider, 1958)

Answer 17

Motivation for consistent attitudes
However, also motivation to hold attitudes similar to those liked and dissimilar to those disliked
Leads to a triad where your attitude, another person’s attitude and the attitude referent need to be in balance

Question 18

Discuss Social Identity Theory/Self-categorisation Theory

Answer 18

We divide the social world into ingroups and outgroups
Conformity to group norms (including shared attitudes) = upon joining a group people may adopt group norm attitudes to demonstrate to themselves and others they are a member
Attitude ‘polarisation’ where extreme attitudes differentiate the in-group from out-groups

Question 19

Discuss functions of attitudes

Answer 19

Katz (1960) = 4 functions of attitudes which help understand people’s certain attitudes:
Knowledge (help explain and understand the world = easier to respond appropriately as recognise world and how to respond)
Utilitarian (adjust behaviour to maximise rewards and minimise punishments)
Value-expressive (allow expression of values and self-concept = identity function)
Ego-defence (helps protect self from threats to self-image = difficult to change and hostile to attitude referent)

However, overemphasis of individual functions (how they serve attitude holders) neglects social functions

Question 20

Do attitudes serve social functions?

Answer 20

Yes
Balance theory = motivated to achieve consistency and liking/disliking of others can arise from perception of shared values
Social Identity Theory/Self-categorisation theory = similar attitudes = group formation, creating ingroups and outgroups = identify with those sharing similar values

Question 21

Discuss the attitude-behaviour relation

Answer 21

Some argue behaviour = attitudes; others argue attitudes = behaviour
Desirable as implies we can explain and influence behaviour
However, there is weak support for a relationship and various variables may moderate the relationship

Question 22

Discuss early attitudinal research

Answer 22

LaPiere (1934) = people may not always have consistent behaviours and attitudes
Wicker’s (1969) meta-analysis suggested a small/weak relation between attitudes and behaviour

Question 23

Discuss variables of the attitude-behaviour relationship

Answer 23

Measurement issues
Attitude strength
Individual differences
Social desirability effects/Social norms
Behavioural control

Question 24

Discuss the principle of correspondence

Answer 24

Pre 1970, most studies focused on attitudes to general entities and specific behaviours
However, attitudes to general entities can be expressed differently and at different times
For strong relations, measures of attitudes and behaviour must be compatible/ general

Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) suggested behaviours are specific actions towards a target in a context at a specific tome
This means attitudes are more strongly related to behaviour when both the attitude and behaviour are measured at the same level of specificity

Question 25

Discuss research evidence for the principle of correspondence

Answer 25

Weigel et al (1976)
General attitudes towards the environment not related to volunteer work for a specific environmental organisation
Attitudes to working for a specific environmental organisation were related to volunteer work for this organisation

Kraus (1995)
Meta-analysis found specific attitudes were significantly better predictors of specific behaviours than general attitudes

Question 26

Discuss how direct versus indirect experience could impact attitude strength

Answer 26

Attitudes formed through direct experience = more strongly associated with behaviour than those formed through indirect experience
Direct experience = more sure attitudes are correct
Fazio & Zanna (1978) found the size of the a-b relationship can be increased by bolstering clarity, confidence and certainty

Question 27

Discuss how accessibility of an attitude could impact attitude strength

Answer 27

Ease of retrieval/ speed of access
Associative strength = consistent and rehearsed evaluation reinforces association
Highly accessible attitudes = more consistent with behaviour and are activated spontaneously by cues
Accessible attitudes = strong biasing effect on perception of a situation, making consistent behaviour more likely

Question 28

Discuss how attitude accessibility could help explain why direct experience increases a-b consistency

Answer 28

People respond quicker to attitudinal enquiries (have more accessible attitudes) when attitudes are from direct experience
Highly accessible attitudes are more strongly related to behaviour
Indirect experience leads to less accessible attitudes, giving less a-b consistency

Question 29

Discuss how stability could impact attitude strength

Answer 29

Stability = consistency in attitudes = attitudes more strongly related to/predictive of behaviour
Direct experience leads to more stable attitudes and greater a-b consistency
Attitudes ingrained over time = less likely to change as stable and established

Question 30

Discuss how ambivalence could impact attitude strength

Answer 30

Extent people simultaneously evaluate attitude referent both positive and negative = less consistent with behaviour
Can be due to differences in cognitive and affective aspects or differences within one of these
Ambivalent attitudes = unstable and dependant on the circumstance eg. what is accessible or important at that time

Question 31

Discuss how
personal involvement with attitude referent could impact attitude strength

Answer 31

Greater personal involvement = stronger associative strength between behaviour and evaluation and resolves any inconsistencies= more chance of a stable attitude = stronger a-b relationship

Question 32

Discuss how individual differences could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour

Answer 32

High self-monitors see themselves as adaptive, matching their actions to the situation
Low self-monitors have actions controlled by inner states
a-b consistency = greater for self-monitors

Question 33

Discuss how social desirability effects/ norms could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour

Answer 33

Social desirability = tendency to present self in a favourable way
This means people may be unwilling to act on or report socially undesirable attitudes

Question 34

Discuss how behavioural control could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour

Answer 34

A behaviour won’t be performed unless people have control of resources, cooperation, skill and opportunity
Even if people want to act on their attitudes they may not be able to

Question 35

Discuss potential issues with correlational studies

Answer 35

Correlation between attitudes and behaviour doesn’t mean attitudes cause behaviour
It could be behaviour causes attitudes
Some theories ascribe a causal path from attitudes to behaviour eg. social cognition models whilst self-perception theory suggests behaviours cause attitudes
Experimental studies could demonstrate a relationship through controlling/manipulating attitudes in attempt to change behaviour

Question 36

Discuss attitude change

Answer 36

Attitudes aren’t always stable constructs that endure over time
They can change as a result of persuasive messages or the impact of our own attitude-relevant behaviour

Question 37

Discuss cognitive consistency theories of attitude change

Answer 37

People like consistency and organise their attitudes to maintain this
eg. prefer to like/dislike same as a person they like
Motivation to change behaviours often leads to behaviour change to resstore equilibrium

Question 38

Describe balance theory

Answer 38

Motivation to have consistent attitudes towards people, objects, behaviour etc.
Unbalance = discomfort = adjust attitudes
Individuals can tolerate inconsistencies but depends on situation and behaviour (eg. if the referent is important)

Question 39

Describe cognitive dissonance theory

Answer 39

People may behave inconsistently with attitudes
Counter-attitudinal behaviour = state of arousal = motivation to change attitudes
Here, inconsistent behaviour can’t be explained by other factors
Individuals may change attitudes to justify a behaviour

Question 40

Describe self-perception theory

Answer 40

Accounts for change due to counter-attitudinal behaviour through attribution (not arousal)
People deduce current attitudes through observing recent behaviour (most immediate source of information)
Behaviour is attributed to attitudes when it can’t be explained by external forces
Inconsistent behaviour and attitudes = attitude change

Question 41

Discuss automatic processing accounts of attitude change

Answer 41

Persuasion = deliberate attempt to change attitudes through communication
Operant/classical conditioning
Heuristic processing = using simple rules to assess information quality = used when no motivation/ability to carefully process information= people may be unaware they are using this but can lead to attitude change
Individuals may not be consciously aware attitude change is happening

Question 42

Discuss depth processing models of attitude change

Answer 42

Focuses on conscious, effortful processes in attitude change
Models include:
Communication model
Cognitive response model
Individuals must engage in effortful cognitive processes

Question 43

Discuss the communication model

Answer 43

Whether or not people are persuaded by a message is influenced by:
The source
The message
Audience
The effects of these are mediated by attention, comprehension and acceptance

Question 44

Discuss the source aspect of the communication model

Answer 44

Originator of communication = who is trying to influence
The source can be credible (expertise and trustworthiness) and attractive (likeable, similar).
More credible and attractive = more likely attitude change will occur.

Question 45

Discuss the message aspect of the communication model

Answer 45

Features of communication = what is the source saying
Persuasion can be increased by:
Two-sided arguments = hard to argue against but contingent on intelligence/prior knowledge
Strong arguments = only when motivation and ability to process them
Repetition when quality is high = increases recall regardless of quality but only changes attitudes if strong persuasion
Fear = only when people have self-efficacy so feel they can do something about it

Question 46

Discuss the audience aspect of the communication model

Answer 46

Who is receiving the message
Can be related to distractibility, intelligence
and self-esteem
However, are those with high self-esteem more difficult to persuade or just less prepared to admit it?

Question 47

Discuss the cognitive response model

Answer 47

Explicit account of persuasion
People actively relate content to prior knowledge = favourable, unfavourable or neutral thoughts = mediate attitude change
Amount of attitude change depends on the number and direction of thoughts
Research found high correlations between measures of cognitive responses to messages and post-message attitudes

Question 48

Discuss dual processing models of attitude change

Answer 48

Combines when automatic and depth processing happen
Persuasion = superficial processing (eg. heuristics) and depth processing (eg. communication model and cognitive response model)
These models include elaboration likelihood model and heuristic systematic model

Question 49

Discuss the elaboration likelihood model of dual-processing

Answer 49

Two routes of attitude change via persuasive communication:
Central route = cognitive processing of message with issue-relevant thoughts = change in cognitive structure of attitudes= changes beliefs = overall attitude shift = dictates behaviour resistant to change
Peripheral route = no/little cognitive processing, presence of peripheral cue (eg. expert) changes attitudes rather than changes in cognitive structure = attitudes relatively temporary, susceptible to change and less predictive of behaviour

Question 50

Discuss whether the central or peripheral route of attitude change will occur

Answer 50

Whether central route or peripheral route attitude change occurs depends on: motivation to process the message (eg. personal involvement is how important this issue is to the individual and need for cognition is how much the individual engages in and enjoys thinking about the information)
ability to process the message (attentional resources, intelligence, time, distraction, repetition, comprehensibility)
The more motivation and ability, the more likely the central route will be