Attitudes Flashcards
Discuss the study of attitudes
Core area of social psychology
Most frequent term to appear in experimental and theoretical literature as they serve a lot of functions
Research into attitude function is arguably the fastest growing area of attitude research
What are attitudes?
Allport (1935) = attitudes are a mental and neural state of readiness organised through experience and directly impacting actions
Attitudes are evaluations (eg. positive/negative, favourable/unfavourable, good/bad, harmful/beneficial) which convey thoughts and feelings about attitude referents
Discuss functionality of attitudes
Attitudes are functional, making them indispensable as they serve us in ways we couldn’t do without
What is an attitude referent?
The thing individuals have an attitude towards (eg. object, behaviour, group of people etc.)
Are attitudes evaluations?
Yes, they convey what we think and how we feel about an attitude referent.
Discuss the tripartite model of attitudes
There are 3 classes which can reveal attitudes:
Cognitive (thoughts/beliefs)
Affective (feelings/emotions)
Behavioural (overt behaviour)
These 3 components can be consistent or inconsistent, leading to ambivalent attitudes
This models with 3 components is not necessarily the best
Give an example of a cognitive response
Beliefs are cognitive associations, giving a link between an attitude referent and its attributes, leading to positive or negative evaluation.
eg. eating a low fat diet is healthy (+)
or eating a low fat diet is expensive(-)
Give examples of affective responses
How you feel can reveal attitudes, this is different from cognitions
eg. eating a low diet makes me feel good (+) or eating a low fat diet makes me feel depressed (-)
Give examples of behavioural responses
Overt actions
Attitude towards a referent influences how likelihood of engaging in behaviours
eg. eating low far foods indicates positive evaluation of this behaviour whilst eating high fat foods indicates eating low fat foods is evaluated negatively
Discuss ambivalent attitudes
People can hold many attitudes at the same time for the same objects.
Components of an attitude can be inconsistent or conflict can occur within components
If conflict can’t be resolved they feel ambivalent
Easier to change as negative consequences are less certain but positive consequences are more proximal and rewards guaranteed.
However, tend to be more unstable and are less predictive of behaviour
Discuss univalent attitudes
Where everything is in unison
Tends to be better at predicting behaviour
Less easy to change
Discuss limitations of the tripartite model
Early correlational studies offered support but later more sophisticated analysis provided only weak or no support
Research suggests cognition and affect are more relevant and behaviour is different = two-component model may be better
Maybe behaviours influence/ are influenced by attitudes but aren’t attitudes themselves
A major function of attitudes is to help guide behaviour
Discuss use of the tripartite model
Provides a useful conceptual framework to express the notion evaluation can be manifested through different types of responses
Allows consideration of how things influence each other
Helps psychologists conceptualise how attitudes are formed
How are attitudes formed?
3 processes rather than components:
Cognitive learning when gain information (from direct or indirect experience) about the attitude referent to form beliefs
Affective processes with classical conditioning = conditioned response = positive or negative attitude
Behavioural processes involving operant conditioning = learn positive/negative outcomes of behaviours = evaluative responses
Discuss self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)
People infer their attitudes based on prior behaviour, considering the conditions under which they perform this
Attitude formation occurs when prior behaviour can’t be explained externally
and is volitional
Discuss Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977)
Observational learning where positively/negatively reinforced behaviour = positive/negative attitude formation
Discuss balance theory (Heider, 1958)
Motivation for consistent attitudes
However, also motivation to hold attitudes similar to those liked and dissimilar to those disliked
Leads to a triad where your attitude, another person’s attitude and the attitude referent need to be in balance
Discuss Social Identity Theory/Self-categorisation Theory
We divide the social world into ingroups and outgroups
Conformity to group norms (including shared attitudes) = upon joining a group people may adopt group norm attitudes to demonstrate to themselves and others they are a member
Attitude ‘polarisation’ where extreme attitudes differentiate the in-group from out-groups
Discuss functions of attitudes
Katz (1960) = 4 functions of attitudes which help understand people’s certain attitudes:
Knowledge (help explain and understand the world = easier to respond appropriately as recognise world and how to respond)
Utilitarian (adjust behaviour to maximise rewards and minimise punishments)
Value-expressive (allow expression of values and self-concept = identity function)
Ego-defence (helps protect self from threats to self-image = difficult to change and hostile to attitude referent)
However, overemphasis of individual functions (how they serve attitude holders) neglects social functions
Do attitudes serve social functions?
Yes
Balance theory = motivated to achieve consistency and liking/disliking of others can arise from perception of shared values
Social Identity Theory/Self-categorisation theory = similar attitudes = group formation, creating ingroups and outgroups = identify with those sharing similar values
Discuss the attitude-behaviour relation
Some argue behaviour = attitudes; others argue attitudes = behaviour
Desirable as implies we can explain and influence behaviour
However, there is weak support for a relationship and various variables may moderate the relationship
Discuss early attitudinal research
LaPiere (1934) = people may not always have consistent behaviours and attitudes
Wicker’s (1969) meta-analysis suggested a small/weak relation between attitudes and behaviour
Discuss variables of the attitude-behaviour relationship
Measurement issues
Attitude strength
Individual differences
Social desirability effects/Social norms
Behavioural control
Discuss the principle of correspondence
Pre 1970, most studies focused on attitudes to general entities and specific behaviours
However, attitudes to general entities can be expressed differently and at different times
For strong relations, measures of attitudes and behaviour must be compatible/ general
Fishbein & Ajzen (1975) suggested behaviours are specific actions towards a target in a context at a specific tome
This means attitudes are more strongly related to behaviour when both the attitude and behaviour are measured at the same level of specificity
Discuss research evidence for the principle of correspondence
Weigel et al (1976)
General attitudes towards the environment not related to volunteer work for a specific environmental organisation
Attitudes to working for a specific environmental organisation were related to volunteer work for this organisation
Kraus (1995)
Meta-analysis found specific attitudes were significantly better predictors of specific behaviours than general attitudes
Discuss how direct versus indirect experience could impact attitude strength
Attitudes formed through direct experience = more strongly associated with behaviour than those formed through indirect experience
Direct experience = more sure attitudes are correct
Fazio & Zanna (1978) found the size of the a-b relationship can be increased by bolstering clarity, confidence and certainty
Discuss how accessibility of an attitude could impact attitude strength
Ease of retrieval/ speed of access
Associative strength = consistent and rehearsed evaluation reinforces association
Highly accessible attitudes = more consistent with behaviour and are activated spontaneously by cues
Accessible attitudes = strong biasing effect on perception of a situation, making consistent behaviour more likely
Discuss how attitude accessibility could help explain why direct experience increases a-b consistency
People respond quicker to attitudinal enquiries (have more accessible attitudes) when attitudes are from direct experience
Highly accessible attitudes are more strongly related to behaviour
Indirect experience leads to less accessible attitudes, giving less a-b consistency
Discuss how stability could impact attitude strength
Stability = consistency in attitudes = attitudes more strongly related to/predictive of behaviour
Direct experience leads to more stable attitudes and greater a-b consistency
Attitudes ingrained over time = less likely to change as stable and established
Discuss how ambivalence could impact attitude strength
Extent people simultaneously evaluate attitude referent both positive and negative = less consistent with behaviour
Can be due to differences in cognitive and affective aspects or differences within one of these
Ambivalent attitudes = unstable and dependant on the circumstance eg. what is accessible or important at that time
Discuss how
personal involvement with attitude referent could impact attitude strength
Greater personal involvement = stronger associative strength between behaviour and evaluation and resolves any inconsistencies= more chance of a stable attitude = stronger a-b relationship
Discuss how individual differences could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour
High self-monitors see themselves as adaptive, matching their actions to the situation
Low self-monitors have actions controlled by inner states
a-b consistency = greater for self-monitors
Discuss how social desirability effects/ norms could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour
Social desirability = tendency to present self in a favourable way
This means people may be unwilling to act on or report socially undesirable attitudes
Discuss how behavioural control could impact how strongly attitudes are associated with behaviour
A behaviour won’t be performed unless people have control of resources, cooperation, skill and opportunity
Even if people want to act on their attitudes they may not be able to
Discuss potential issues with correlational studies
Correlation between attitudes and behaviour doesn’t mean attitudes cause behaviour
It could be behaviour causes attitudes
Some theories ascribe a causal path from attitudes to behaviour eg. social cognition models whilst self-perception theory suggests behaviours cause attitudes
Experimental studies could demonstrate a relationship through controlling/manipulating attitudes in attempt to change behaviour
Discuss attitude change
Attitudes aren’t always stable constructs that endure over time
They can change as a result of persuasive messages or the impact of our own attitude-relevant behaviour
Discuss cognitive consistency theories of attitude change
People like consistency and organise their attitudes to maintain this
eg. prefer to like/dislike same as a person they like
Motivation to change behaviours often leads to behaviour change to resstore equilibrium
Describe balance theory
Motivation to have consistent attitudes towards people, objects, behaviour etc.
Unbalance = discomfort = adjust attitudes
Individuals can tolerate inconsistencies but depends on situation and behaviour (eg. if the referent is important)
Describe cognitive dissonance theory
People may behave inconsistently with attitudes
Counter-attitudinal behaviour = state of arousal = motivation to change attitudes
Here, inconsistent behaviour can’t be explained by other factors
Individuals may change attitudes to justify a behaviour
Describe self-perception theory
Accounts for change due to counter-attitudinal behaviour through attribution (not arousal)
People deduce current attitudes through observing recent behaviour (most immediate source of information)
Behaviour is attributed to attitudes when it can’t be explained by external forces
Inconsistent behaviour and attitudes = attitude change
Discuss automatic processing accounts of attitude change
Persuasion = deliberate attempt to change attitudes through communication
Operant/classical conditioning
Heuristic processing = using simple rules to assess information quality = used when no motivation/ability to carefully process information= people may be unaware they are using this but can lead to attitude change
Individuals may not be consciously aware attitude change is happening
Discuss depth processing models of attitude change
Focuses on conscious, effortful processes in attitude change
Models include:
Communication model
Cognitive response model
Individuals must engage in effortful cognitive processes
Discuss the communication model
Whether or not people are persuaded by a message is influenced by:
The source
The message
Audience
The effects of these are mediated by attention, comprehension and acceptance
Discuss the source aspect of the communication model
Originator of communication = who is trying to influence
The source can be credible (expertise and trustworthiness) and attractive (likeable, similar).
More credible and attractive = more likely attitude change will occur.
Discuss the message aspect of the communication model
Features of communication = what is the source saying
Persuasion can be increased by:
Two-sided arguments = hard to argue against but contingent on intelligence/prior knowledge
Strong arguments = only when motivation and ability to process them
Repetition when quality is high = increases recall regardless of quality but only changes attitudes if strong persuasion
Fear = only when people have self-efficacy so feel they can do something about it
Discuss the audience aspect of the communication model
Who is receiving the message
Can be related to distractibility, intelligence
and self-esteem
However, are those with high self-esteem more difficult to persuade or just less prepared to admit it?
Discuss the cognitive response model
Explicit account of persuasion
People actively relate content to prior knowledge = favourable, unfavourable or neutral thoughts = mediate attitude change
Amount of attitude change depends on the number and direction of thoughts
Research found high correlations between measures of cognitive responses to messages and post-message attitudes
Discuss dual processing models of attitude change
Combines when automatic and depth processing happen
Persuasion = superficial processing (eg. heuristics) and depth processing (eg. communication model and cognitive response model)
These models include elaboration likelihood model and heuristic systematic model
Discuss the elaboration likelihood model of dual-processing
Two routes of attitude change via persuasive communication:
Central route = cognitive processing of message with issue-relevant thoughts = change in cognitive structure of attitudes= changes beliefs = overall attitude shift = dictates behaviour resistant to change
Peripheral route = no/little cognitive processing, presence of peripheral cue (eg. expert) changes attitudes rather than changes in cognitive structure = attitudes relatively temporary, susceptible to change and less predictive of behaviour
Discuss whether the central or peripheral route of attitude change will occur
Whether central route or peripheral route attitude change occurs depends on: motivation to process the message (eg. personal involvement is how important this issue is to the individual and need for cognition is how much the individual engages in and enjoys thinking about the information)
ability to process the message (attentional resources, intelligence, time, distraction, repetition, comprehensibility)
The more motivation and ability, the more likely the central route will be
