attention and memory

Question 1

Focussed Attention
Define & Example of a Study

Answer 1

Focussed attention: Our ability to focus on one task, whilst ignoring distractions.

Studying focused attention: Present participants with 2 stimuli at once and ask them to focus on one (listen to the two conversations but focus on one and ignore the other). The stimuli are often auditory (focused auditory attention) or visual (focused attention).

Question 2

Treisman’s model of auditory attention has been called a “leaky filter” model. Why?

Answer 2

attended messages are fully processed and reach consciousness but only low threshold information in the unattended message is likely to reach consciousness

Question 3

Trying to spot a friend in a crowded train station would be a ________ whereas trying to spot a friend in a less crowded train station would be a ________

Answer 3

high perceptual load task; low perceptual load task

Question 4

Suppose you’re looking at different scenes featuring a woman who was wearing a scarf. If, in one scene, the woman’s scarf was missing, you’d likely ________ it due to ________

Answer 4

not detect; change blindness

Question 5

Which of the following is NOT part of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) modal model of memory?

the phonological loop
short-term memory
long-term memory
sensory memory

Answer 5

the phonological loop

Question 6

James is trying to remember a certain address, 1277 West 53 Street. He has no problem doing so because the date “1/2/77” is his brother’s birthday and “53” was James’ old house number. As such, it appears that James made use of ________ .

Answer 6

chunking

Question 7

According to the working memory model, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people’s driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road?

Trying to remember a map of the area
Trying to imagine how many cabinets are in their kitchen
Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned
Trying to imagine a portrait from a recent museum exhibit

Answer 7

Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned

Question 8

The staff working in the air traffic control tower at a busy airport can be considered a suitable metaphor for which of the following?

Answer 8

the central executive

Question 9

This multiple-choice question is an example of a ___________ test.

recognition
cued recal
free recall
serial recall

Answer 9

recognition

Question 10

___________ memories are to experiences as ___________ memories are to facts.

Answer 10

Episodic; semantic

Question 11

Which of the following is the ‘odd one out’?

priming
procedural memory
conditioning
semantic memory

Answer 11

semantic memory

Question 12

Divided Attention

Answer 12

Divided Attention: Our ability to focus on two or more tasks at the same time.

Studying divided attention

Participants complete two tasks at one.

Focussing on two visual stimuli at one or focussing on one auditory and another visual stimulus at once.

One example of this is a study where a participant is having a Bluetooth telephone conversation whilst driving.

Question 13

What is the difference between focused and divided attention, and how they are studied?

Answer 13

Multitasking

With Focussed Attention, Researchers examine issues such as:
Researchers examine issues such as
- How well we can focus attention on one stimulus whilst ignoring another.
- What influences our ability to focus attention on one stimulus (e.g., tiredness?)
- Whether we process any of the unattended stimulus that is meant to be ignored.

With Divided Attention, Researchers examine issues such as:
- How well we can complete two tasks at once
- What influences our ability to do the above (eg., task modality? or task formality?)

Question 14

Explain how WW2 inspired the creation of the dichotic listening task and how the task works

Answer 14

WW2 inspired the creation of the dichotic listening task as radar operators had to listen to messages from several other pilots simultaneously over a loudspeaker. Made Cherry and Broadbent question: do they process all messages regardless of their focused attention on a singular?

Study: Cherry’s (1953)

In the STUDY:
After listening to the overlapping messages participants were surprised with a memory test that asked them to recall both stories. They found that they completely block out the others if they’re focusing on one voice.

Ignored message:
- If it’s a fast-speaking voice, we process at a surface level
- slow speaking voice has a higher level of processing, yet individuals don’t retain the details of the conversation.

Question 15

Name three models that explain how focused auditory attention works

Answer 15

Three models that explain focused auditory attention.

Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory
Treisman’s (1964) Attenuation theory
Deutsch and Deutsh (1963)/Mackay (1973)

Question 16

Explain and critically evaluate Broadbent’s (1958) filter theory

Answer 16

Broadbent tried explaining how focussed auditory attention works. His Filter Theory was based on Cherry’s (1953) findings. The theory was depicted in a flow diagram (see below)

When we hear two (or more) messages at the same time, each enters sensory memory
They then reach a filter: The message you wish to attend to is identified via physical characteristics (e.g., accent, tone, pitch, speed of talking). All other unattended messages are blocked
The detector processes the information from the attended message to determine its higher-level characteristics, such as its meaning
The detector sends the processed information to short-term memory, which holds information temporarily. It can then move to long-term memory, which can hold information indefinitely

Question 17

Explain and critically evaluate Treisman’s (1964) Attenuation theory

Answer 17

Treisman (1964) amended Broadbent’s (1958) Filter Theory slightly:

1. Both messages enter sensory memory. They reach an attenuator, where the message of interest is identified via physical characteristics and meaning. Unattended message processing is reduced (not eliminated). Both messages are then sent to the Dictionary Unit for further processing.
2. The Dictionary Unit contains words, stored in memory. Each word has an activation threshold:

• Common words: High activation threshold (so no special attention paid to them)
• Important words (your name, ‘fire’): A low activation threshold (special attention paid to them)
• If an unattended message has low activation threshold words (or words matching the content of the attended message, as in the ‘Dear Aunt Jane’ study), they receive special attention/reach consciousness

Question 18

Explain and critically evaluate Deutsch and Deutsh (1963)/Mackay (1973)

Answer 18

Deutsch and Deutsch (1963)/MacKay (1973) proposed an alternative model, as they suggested all information is fully processed for meaning, without any filtering or attenuation
The most relevant information becomes the focus of attention, but we should notice all relevant information in the unattended message (as that message is also fully processed for meaning)

Question 19

Which Theory has the Best Support?

Answer 19

Treisman’s (1964) Attenuation Theory is best supported, although likely needs refinements:
Neurologically, in cocktail party scenarios, the brain seems to enhance processing of attended messages and suppress processing of unattended messages (Horton et al., 2013)
In real-life scenarios, other cues (lip reading) also help us focus on one voice (Golumbic et al., 2013)

Question 20

Explain whether visual attention is like a spotlight, zoom-lens, or if object-based attention occurs.

Answer 20

Visual attention is controlled by object-based attention.

Subsequent comparisons of spotlight theory and object attention theory suggest:

1. Visual attention can be shaped like a spotlight or object-based
2. The default mode is likely ‘spotlight mode’ which is object-based attention used less often. Individual differences may exist

Question 21

How Prevalent is Object-Based Attention?

Answer 21

very prevalent

Subsequent comparisons of spotlight theory and object attention theory suggest:

1. Visual attention can be shaped like a spotlight or object-based
2. The default mode is likely ‘spotlight mode’ which is object-based attention used less often. Individual differences may exist

Question 22

Explain the role that visual attention plays in object perception

Answer 22

Visual attention plays a surprising role in object perception.

Feature Integration Theory: when we look at objects in an environment there is a two-stage process that occurs.

• The pre-attentive stage: process the features independently, combine them using object knowledge etc.
• The focussed attention stages.
  Attention ‘binds’ these features so we have an integrated perception of an object (called binding). Attention helps us perceive the complete precepts of objects.

Question 23

Practical Implications for visual attention and object perception

Answer 23

Visual Search Tasks:
In tasks that require searching for a specific object in a cluttered environment, visual attention helps in quickly locating and identifying the target by binding relevant features while ignoring irrelevant ones.

Attention Disorders:
Understanding the role of attention in binding can inform the diagnosis and treatment of attention-related disorders, such as ADHD, where individuals may struggle with efficiently binding features and perceiving objects accurately.

Question 24

Explain what perceptual load is, what high and low perceptual tasks are, and how they impact the likelihood of being distracted during a task

Answer 24

Perceptual load: number of cognitive resources required to process a given task - t is a key concept in understanding how attention is allocated and how easily we can be distracted.

High: require more cognitive effort and attentional resources. consume a significant portion of our attentional capacity, leaving little room for processing other information.

Example: Reading and comprehending a challenging text
Reduced distractions – less likely to notice extraneous information as high perceptual load tasks consume most of our attentional resources – less available capacity for processing irrelevant information.
Focused attention

Low: require fewer resources. They do not consume as much of our attentional resources, allowing more capacity to process additional information.

Example: Folding laundry
Increased distractions – more capacity available for processing other stimuli
Divided attention – do not fully engage our attention, therefore it is easier for distractions to capture our focus leading to potential performance issues.

Question 25

Real world research that supports perceptual load

Answer 25

Lavies Perceptual Load Theory (1995;2010): tries to explain how likely we are to be impacted by distractions during focused attention tasks.

Forester and Lavie (2008)

Distraction of a cartoon (famous) characters in 10% of the trials.
Were people going to be distracted from the task due to the character?
Took longer to complete task due to this.
But it harmed the results of the easy task more because it had a low perceptual load.
Distraction (stimuli) itself matters as well; however extraneous variables do have an impact on the level of distraction.

Question 26

criticism of perceptual load

Answer 26

Subjective (dependent upon researcher intuition) – what requires low perceptual load VS high perceptual load.

Question 27

Explain change blindness/inattentional blindness

Answer 27

Inattentional blindness is when participants accidentally fail to notice a change in the environment because they are focusing on a specific area.

Question 28

How it Inattentional Blindness impacted by perceptual load?

Answer 28

More likley to occur in divided attention tasks.

eg. such as answering the phone while entering prescriptions into the computer or even thinking about dinner plans while transcribing an order

Question 29

Explain the factors that determine how effective we are at dividing attention between two tasks.

Answer 29

Divided attention is influenced by many factors such as the difficulty of the task (with regard to cognitive load), the similarity and familiarity of the task (automatic vs. Controlled processing (influences the cognitive effort)), environmental factors (distractions) and the effects of practice.

Question 30

study to support how effective we are at divided attention tasked

Answer 30

Murphy and Greene (2016) had participants perform gap perception tasks in a driving simulator, where they had to decide if their vehicle could fit between two parked vehicles they were approaching:

Low perceptual load condition: The gap was clearly big enough
High perceptual load condition: That gap was either just the right size or slightly too small, so participants had to really study the gap whilst driving towards it

On two of the trails, a pedestrian or animal unexpectedly appeared on the road side.
Low perceptual load conditions: 54% of individuals noticed the pedestrian or animal
High perceptual load condition: 17% of participants noticed the pedestrian or animal

Question 31

Explain what memory is, what it is used for

Answer 31

Memory is the ability to recall information that is no longer present. Used for retaining, retrieving and using information. Remember locations, actions, events, people, general knowledge and ourselves.

Question 32

Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1969) Modal Model of Memory and explain its three components.

Answer 32

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model, developed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, describes three distinct stages through which information passes in a linear fashion: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model serves as a fundamental framework for understanding the process by which sensory input is captured, processed, and archived.

Question 33

Explain STM is, how much information it can hold, how long it holds it for, and why information is forgotten from it.

Answer 33

How much information can it hold?
7-9 items in Verbal STM – very limited capacity. Shorter words can fit into STM due to the word length effect.

How long does it hold it for?
Limited capacity temporary store (20-30 seconds). Chunking increases verbal STM capacity.

Question 34

Explain why Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1969) Modal Model of Memory was incorrect when describing STM and why the Working Memory model replaced it.

Answer 34

States the existence of only one STM system. Whilst cognitive neurophysiological research proves there are two STM systems – Verbal and Visuospatial.

Therefore, based on patients with brain lesions and their own study, Braddley and Hitch proposed a new model for STM: the Working Memory Model.

Question 35

Differentiate Short-Term Memory tasks and Working Memory tasks

Answer 35

Short-Term Memory (STM) Tasks:

Storage: STM tasks primarily involve the temporary storage of information.
Duration: STM typically retains information for a brief period (around 20-30 seconds without rehearsal).
Capacity: The capacity is limited, traditionally estimated to be about 7 ± 2 items.
Examples: Repeating a phone number right after hearing it, remembering a short list of words for a few seconds.

Working Memory (WM) Tasks:

Processing and Storage: WM involves not just the temporary storage but also the manipulation and processing of information.
Duration: Information in WM is actively maintained and manipulated over a short period.
Components: WM consists of multiple components that handle different types of information (e.g., phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad).
Examples: Solving a math problem in your head, following multi-step directions, holding a conversation while planning your response.

Question 36

Draw Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) Working Memory Model, correctly labelling its components.

Answer 36

+—————–+
| Central Executive|
+—————–+
/ | \
/ | \
/ | \
Phonological Loop| | Visuospatial Sketchpad| | Episodic Buffer (2000)|

Phonological Loop| | Visuospatial Sketchpad| | Episodic Buffer (2000)|

Question 37

Describe each of Working Memory model’s major systems and their functions

Answer 37

Central executive – attention system that helps us focus and divide attention.
Function: Acts as the control system that coordinates the activities of the other components. It is responsible for attention control, task switching, and integrating information from the subsystems. (focus and divided attention)
Role: Decides which information is attended to and which tasks are performed.

Episodic buffer (added in 2000) – (allows for chunking) temporarily stores information from PL, VSSP and LTM.
Function: Integrates information from different modalities and maintains a sense of time sequencing (i.e., it is a storage system that combines information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory). (allows for chuncking)
Role: Provides a temporary storage where information from various sources can be integrated into a single, coherent episode.

Visuospatial sketch pad – temporarily stores images/spatial location information.
Function: Handles visual and spatial information. (temporarily stores images/spatial location information.)
Role: Allows for the creation and manipulation of mental images and spatial awareness.

Phonological loop – (words when reading in your head) temporarily stores language/sound-based information.
Function: Deals with verbal and auditory information.
Components:
Phonological Store: Holds spoken words for 1-2 seconds.
Articulatory Control Process: Rehearses and refreshes the information in the phonological store.

Question 38

Explain Working Memory’s importance in everyday life.

Answer 38

Supports complex tasks such as learning, reasoning and comprehension.

Links to academic attainment and predict workplace success.

Problem Solving and Reasoning: Helps in solving problems and making decisions by holding and manipulating information.

Language Comprehension and Production: Crucial for understanding and producing language, enabling us to follow conversations and construct sentences.

Learning and Academic Performance: Essential for learning new information and skills, such as reading, writing, and mathematics.

Task Management: Helps in managing and executing multiple tasks simultaneously, like cooking while talking on the phone.

Question 39

Explain the strengths of the Working Memory Model.

Answer 39

Advantages:
- BADDELEY & HITCH - Doing two tasks that use the same component causes difficulty, when different components used, performance is not affected

• BUNGE ET AL - fMRI, more brain activity in dual-task condition
• BADDELEY ET AL - phonological loop explains why word-length effect occurs
• BADDELEY ET AL - visuo-spatial sketchpad shown in visual tracking task
• BADDELEY ET AL - pp’s recall for sentences better than for unrelated words, an immediate memory stormust be present for items that are not visual nor phonological
• SHALLICE AND WARRINGTON - patient KF, could remember visual short term information more than auditory
• TROJANO AND GROSSI - patient SC, unable to learn words that were presented out loud
• FARAH ET AL - patient LH, performed better on spatial tasks than those involving visual imagery
• Considerable amount of evidence
• Includes verbal rehearsal as an option of processing rather than being the only way of processing unlike MSM
• WMM emphasises process, MSM emphasises structure

There is convincing empirical evidence for all components of the model

As Logie (2015, p. 100) noted, the model explains findings “from a very wide range of research topics, for example, aspects of children’s language development, aspects of counting and mental arithmetic, reasoning and problem solving, dividing and switching attention, navigating unfamiliar environments”.

Question 40

Explain the limitations of the Working Memory Model.

Answer 40

Limitations:
- Central Executive is** too vague and doesn’t explain anything**
As the Notion of one single central executive is wrong, there are probably several components

• ESLINGER AND DAMASIO - studied EVR (person), performed well in tasks involving reasoning skills (suggests CE is intact) but had poor decision-making skills (suggests CE is not wholly intact)
• Problems with using brain-damaged patients - cannot make ‘before and after’ comparisons = unclear whether the damage causes changes in behaviour

Baddeley (2012) acknowledges the model is oversimplified, as several kinds of information are ignored (e.g., STM of smell, touch, and taste)

We need more research on the interactions among the working memory components (e.g., how the EB integrates information from the PL, VSSP, and LTM)

Question 41

Explain how STM and LTM differ at a functional level

Answer 41

LTM = relatively permanent storage of all experience, skills and general knowledge.

STM = store that holds in the mind, during an active available state, a small amount of information.

Question 42

Explain whether or not STM and LTM are biologically

Answer 42

Separate systems that use the same as we as distinct areas of the brain. For example, the relationship between hippocampus and LTM + STM. Originally believed only to affect LTM recent (2007) findings prove STM is affected by hippocampus damage as well.

Question 43

Explain how information is encoded/coded in LTM

Answer 43

Encoded/coded in LTM = process of storing external stimuli

Visual coding: coded and represented in LTM as visual images. For example, picturing a friend’s face in your mind.

Auditory coding: coded and represented as sound-based images. For example, listening to a song in your head.

Semantic coding/encoding: gist/general meaning is stored in our minds and coded into LTM. Thus, when reading this information, the semantic representation appears.

We can code multiple aspects of stimuli and hold multiple representations of it in LTM.

Question 44

What is semantic coding?

Answer 44

Refers to encoding information based on its meaning. For example, remembering the gist of a story rather than specific words.

Question 45

Explain how declarative and nondeclarative memory differ

Answer 45

Declarative: consciously appears in our thoughts

Declarative Memory:
Conscious Recall: Involves information that can be consciously recalled and verbalized.

Types:
Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events.
Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts.

Nondeclarative: automatic (no need to think) – reflexes

Nondeclarative Memory:
Implicit Recall: Involves skills and habits that can be performed without conscious awareness.

Types:
Procedural Memory: Skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).
Classical Conditioning: Learned responses to stimuli.
Priming: Enhanced identification of objects or words due to prior exposure
Habituation: sensitization – reflex pathways

Summary:
Declarative: explicit memory – conscious
Nondeclarative: Implicit memory – unconscious

Question 46

Name the different declarative and nondeclarative memory systems in Squire’s (1992) LTM Model.

Answer 46

Nondeclarative: automatic (no need to think) – reflexes
Procedural: skills and habits – basal ganglia
Priming: presentation of one stimulus influences processing of later stimulus – neocortex
Simple classical conditioning – amygdala cerebellum
Habituation: sensitization – reflex pathways

Declarative: consciously appears in our thoughts
Episodic memory: experience and events
Semantic memory: facts

Question 47

Name the different declarative and nondeclarative memory systems in Squire’s (1992) LTM Model and describe their functions.

Answer 47

Nondeclarative:

Procedural: skills and habits – basal ganglia

The Cognitive Stage - Declarative Memory is used. You must consciously think about steps involved in performing a new skill. Memory/attentional demands are high. Errors are likely

The Associative Stage - With practice, Declarative Memory’s role is reduced. Associations between the skill and procedural memory start to form/automatic processing starts. Fewer errors occur

The Autonomous Stage - Nondeclarative Memory takes over. Associations between the skill and procedural memories is formalised. The skill is performed automatically/without conscious thought

Priming: presentation of one stimulus influences processing of later stimulus – neocortex

Priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (the prime) influences processing of a later stimulus (the target or test stimulus). Simple classical conditioning – amygdala cerebellum Repetition - Repeated presentation of stimuli speeds up its processing (e.g., If you see the word ‘nurse’ twice, it is processed faster second time)

Semantic - Presentation of a stimulus (e.g., the word ‘nurse’) speeds subsequent processing of associated stimuli (e.g., the word ‘doctor’), but not non-associated stimuli (e.g., the word ‘bread’)

Classical Conditioning

Habituation: sensitization – reflex pathways

Declarative:

Episodic memory: experience and events

Free Recall – recall information in any order

Serial Recall – recall information in a set order (e.g., backwards).

Cued Recall - cues or aids are given about what to recall/what the answer is. (e.g., Pi__, Da_, Ca_)

Recognition – Information provided. Participants indicate if it is old (studied) or new (not studied). (e.g., wombat: old/new, student: old/new, dragon: old/new).

Semantic memory: facts

Picture/object naming - Naming familiar objects, often seen in pictures (e.g., scissors).

Category Fluency - Naming as many category exemplars as possible in X minutes (e.g., fruits).

Question 48

Squire’s 1992 Long Term Memory Model

Answer 48

Long-Term Memory
|
————————————-
| |
Declarative Memory Non-Declarative Memory
(Explicit Memory) (Implicit Memory)
| |
—————- ————————
| | | | | |
Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Procedural Priming Simple Classical
(Events) (Facts) Memory and Conditioning
(Skills) Perceptual
Learning

Question 49

Discuss the evidence that our different declarative and non declarative memory systems are separate but often interact.

Answer 49

Our declarative & non declarative memory systems do not interact with/influence each other

Dohring et al. (2017): Amnesic patients with impaired episodic memory took longer to learn a procedural memory task than controls

Gregory et al. (2016): Patient L.J.S. had impaired semantic memory, except in a relation to certain skills she had (e.g., she was a pilot and could recall more facts about flying airplane than controls)

Question 50

The Inner Scribe….
- stores written language
- stores visual and spatial information
- stores spatial information
- stores visual information

Answer 50

stores spatial information

Question 51

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Modal Model of Memory (1968) proposed that we have _______ types of memory
- three
- two
- four
- one

Answer 51

Three