Attachment

Question 1

define attachment

Answer 1

a two way emotional bond
2 individuals see the other a essential to their own emotional security `

Question 2

caregiver infant interactions
define reciprocity

Answer 2

a description of how 2 people interact.
mother- infant interaction is reciprocal that both infant and mother respond to each others signals and responds to other persons behaviour

Question 3

caregiver infant interactions
define interactional synchrony

Answer 3

mother and infant reflect both the action and emotions of the other in a synchronized way
infant mirrors caregiver (eg: hand gesture)

Question 4

attachment figures
parent-infant attachment Schaffer and Emerson

Answer 4

Schaffer and Emerson found that majoirty pf babies did become attached to their mother first
within a few weeks or moths formed a secondary attachment to other family members

75% of infants studied: attachment was formed with the father by 18 months.

Question 5

attachment figures
role of the father
Grossman

Answer 5

infant goes to father when in a positive emotional mood and wanting to play but prefer their mothers when in distress and need comfort

Grossman longitudinal study
look at both parents behavior
quality of infant attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to children’s attachment in adolescence suggesting that father attachment was less important.
but quality of fathers play with infant was related to the quality of adolescents attachment
= fathers have a different role in attachment

Question 6

attachment figures
fathers as primary care givers

Field’s study

Answer 6

evidence that suggest that when fathers take on the role of being the main caregiver they adopt behaviors that have been associated with mothers.
Tiffany Field : filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interaction with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers, primary caregiver fathers.
primary care giver fathers were like the mothers-more interaction
(important behavior in building a relationship)
= key to attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness , not the gender.

Question 7

care giver infant interactions
Evaluation: controlled observations
Field’s Study

Answer 7

observations are controlled procedures which both individuals are being filmed with multiple angles
= ensures that very fine details of behavior can be recorded and later analyzed
+ babies don’t know they are being observed = behavior does not change
= good validity

Question 8

care giver infant interactions
Evaluation: special meaning

Answer 8

observations of interactions have shown the same pattern of interaction
(hand movements or changes in expression)
= hard to be certain what the infants perspective is (conscious and deliberate ?)
= hard to know for certain that behaviors seen in mother-infant interactions have a special meaning

Question 9

attachment figures:
evaluation: inconsistent findings on father

Answer 9

research is not certain because different researchers are interested in different research questions.
secondary vs primary attachment figure
level of maternal behavior differs
= cannot answer question of the role of the father

Question 10

attachment figures:
evaluation: children without fathers

Answer 10

Grossman found that fathers as secondary attachment figures have an important role in development.
but other studies have shown that children growing up without fathers do not develop any differently
= suggests that the fathers role as secondary attachment figure is not important

Question 11

Schaffer and Emerson Stages of attachment
STUDY- aim and method

Answer 11

aim - to investigate the formation of early attachments + the age at which they develop, emotional intensity and to whom it was directed to

method-
60 babies from Glasgow
babies visited each month for the first year
researcher asked the mothers questions about the kind of protest babies showed in everyday separations measure separation anxiety and stranger anxiety to unfamiliar adults

Question 12

Schaffer and Emerson Stages of attachment
STUDY- findings

Answer 12

findings- 25-32 weeks of age 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety towards a particular adult (specific attachment) - caregiver who was the most interactive and sensitive to infant signals and facial expressions (reciprocity)
40 weeks- 80% had a specific attachment and 30% had multiple attachments

Question 13

Schaffer Stages of attachment

Answer 13

1- Asocial stage
2- indiscriminate attachment
3- specific attachment
4- multiple attachments

Question 14

Shaffer stages of attachment
asocial stage

Answer 14

first stage
first few weeks
baby recognising and forming bond with its carers
but behavior towards non human objects and humans is quite similar
some preference shown for familiar adults in individuals that find it easier to calm them
babies happier when in the presence of other humans

Question 15

Shaffer stages of attachment
indiscriminate attachment

Answer 15

stage 2
2-7 months
display more observable social behavior
show a preference for people rather than inanimate objects and recognize and prefer familiar adults
babies accept cuddles and comfort from any adult
do not show separation anxiety or stranger anxiety
attachment behavior is indiscriminate - not different towards any one person

Question 16

Shaffer stages of attachment
specific attachment

Answer 16

3rd stage
7 months
babies start to display anxiety towards strangers and become anxious when separated from one particular adult
formed a specific attachment - primary attachment figure-not necessary the person the child spends the most time with but the one who offer the most interaction and responds to the babies signals

Question 17

Schaffer stages of attachment
multiple attachments

Answer 17

4th stage
extend attachment behavior to multiple attachments with other adults with who they regularly spend time
- secondary attachments
29% form a secondary attachment within a month of forming a primary attachment

Question 18

schaffer and Emmerson study
evaluation: external validity

Answer 18

study carried out in families own home and most of the observation was done by parents during ordinary activities and reported to researchers later
= behaviour of babies was unlikely to be affected by the presence of the observers
= good external validity

Question 19

schaffer and Emmerson study
evaluation: longitudinal design

Answer 19

the same children were followed up and observed regularly
better internal validity than cross sectional because they do not have cofounding variables of individual differences

Question 20

Schaffer stages of attachment
evaluation: asocial stage

Answer 20

describe the first few weeks as the asocial stage but important interactions take place
babies are immobile
= difficult to make any judgements about them based on observations of their behavior because there isn’t much observable behavior
= evidence cannot be relied on

Question 21

schaffer and Emmerson stages of attachment
evaluation: measuring multiple attachments

Answer 21

just because a baby gets distressed when an individual leaves the room does not mean that the individual is an attachment figure
Bowlby- infants have playmates and attachment figures
= observations does not allow behavior to be distinguished between secondary attachment figures and playmates

Question 22

Lorenzos research procedure

Answer 22

randomly divided a group of goose eggs
half the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment
the other half hatched in an incubator and the first moving object they saw was Lorenzo

Question 23

Lorenzo findings

Answer 23

the incubabtor group followed lorenzo everywhere whereas the control group followed their mother
when the two groups were mixed up the experimental group followed lorezo

IMPRINTING- birds and species that are mobile from birth attach to and follow the first moving object they see.
lorenzo identified a critical period in which imprinting needs to take place or else attachment to a mother figure would not happen

Question 24

lorenzo
sexual imprinting

Answer 24

investigated the relationship between imprinting and adult male preferences
observed birds that imprinted on a human would often later display courtship behavior towards humans

Question 25

Lorenzo Study
Evaluation: Generalizability

Answer 25

although some of his findings have influenced our understanding of human development, there is a problem generalizing findings of birds to humans

Question 26

Lorenzo Study
Evaluation: long term effect

Answer 26

some of Lorenzo’s observation have been questioned
finding that imprinting has a permanent effect on mating behavior-
Guiton chicks tried to mate with yellow washing gloves they imprinted on. (sexual imprinting)
= irreversible effect it had on the animals

Question 27

Harlow’s research
procedure

Answer 27

observed that newborns kept alone in a cage usually died but that they usually survived if give something soft to cuddle

• tested the idea that soft objects serves some of the function of the mother
  16 baby monkey’s- milk dispensed from a wire mother or a cloth mother

Question 28

Harlows research
findings

Answer 28

baby mokey cuddled the soft object in preference to the wire one and sought comfort from the cloth regardless of which dispensed milk

showed “contact comfort” was of more importance to the moneys than food when it came to attachment behavior

Question 29

Harlow’s research
evaluation: practical value

Answer 29

results had important applications in a range of practical contexts.
EG, helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse so can intervene and prevent it
+ understand importance of proper attachment figures for babymonkeys in zoo

Question 30

Harlow’s research
evaluation: ethical issues

Answer 30

monkey’s suffered greatly as a result of Harlow’s procedures. species are considered similar to humans to be able to generalize findings = suffering was quite human like.

BUT research was important to justify the effects

Question 31

Harlow’s research
evaluation: theoretical value

Answer 31

findings have had an important effect on understanding human mother-infant attachment. showed that attachment does not develop as result of being fed by mother figure but by contact comfort.
importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development

Question 32

Explanations of attachment
LEARNING THEORY
classical conditioning

Answer 32

Dollard and Miller proposed that caregiver infant attachment can be explained by learning theory.
emphasizes the importance of the caregiver as the provider of food

CC- learning to associate two stimuli together so we begin to respond to both in the same way

food- unconditioned stimulus -> being fed- unconditioned response (pleasure)
caregiver - neutral stimulus (no response)
food+ mother (UCS+NS)= UCR pleasure
mother = conditioned stimulus -> pleasure = conditioned response

Question 33

Explanations of attachment
LEARNING THEORY
attachment as a secondary drive

Answer 33

learning theory draws on the concept on DRIVE REDUCTION
hunger can be thought of as a PRIMARY DRIVE- its innate, biological motivator
sears et al: suggest that as caregivers provide food the primary drive of hunger becomes generalized to them= attachment is a secondary drive learned by an association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive

Question 34

learning theory
evaluation: counter evidence

Answer 34

animal studies has shown that young animals do not necessarily attach or imprint to those who fed them
Lorenzo: attached to figure before they were fed and maintained attachment regardless of who fed them .
Harlow’s monkeys attached to soft surrogate who did not dispense milk
= attachment does not develop as a result of feedings

Question 35

learning theory
evaluation: ignores factors

Answer 35

research into early infant caregiver interactions suggest that the quality of attachment is due to reciprocity + interactional synchrony
+ studies shown that the best quality attachments are with sensitive cares that pickup infant signals and respond
= attachment is not purely a result of feeding

Question 36

Bowlby’s Theory + Monotropy

Answer 36

rejected learning theory
proposed an evolutionary explanation, innate system that gave a survival advantage

(monotropic because placed emphasis to one particular caregiver)

Bowlby: more the time a baby spent with the mother/primary care giver the better:

law on continuity: state that the more constant and predictable a Childs care, the better quality of their attachment
law of accumulated separation: effects of every separation from the mother add up

Question 37

Bowlby’s theory social releasers and the critical period

Answer 37

SOCIAL RELEASERS -babies are born with a set of innate cute behaviors (smiling cooing) = encourage attention from adults = activate adult attachment system
(attachment is a reciprocal process)
both mother and baby have innate predistortion , social releasers trigger the response

attachment gradually builds the relationship between infant and adult
CRITICAL PERIOD: 2 years when infant attachment system is active
SENSITIVE PERIOD: max sensitive at age 2 but if an attachment is not formed the child will fin it much harder to form one later

Question 38

Bowlby’s theory: internal working model

Answer 38

child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their primary caregiver.
serves as a model for what relationships are like
= effect on nature of Childs future relationships
loving = tend to form an expectation that are relationships are as loving + reliable, same qualities in future relationships

internal working model affects the Childs later ability to be a parent themselves. base their parenting behavior on their own experiences of being parented.

Question 39

Bowlby’s theory
evaluation: mixed evidence for monotropy

Answer 39

babies form one attachment and its special and different
only after could baby form multiple attachment
Not supported by Schaffer and Emerson: most babies did attach to one person first BUST able to form multiple at the same time

Question 40

Bowlby’s theory
evaluation: support for social releasers

Answer 40

clear evidence that cute infant behaviors are intended to initiate social interaction

Question 41

Bowlby’s theory
evaluation: support for internal working models

Answer 41

model is testable because it predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed on.
Bailey: assessed 99 mothers with one year old babies on quality of attachment to their own mothers using interview. + babies attachment to their mothers
= mothers who reported poor attachment to own parents were more likely to have poor attachment to child.

Question 42

Ainsworth Strange Situation
aims + procedure

Answer 42

aim to be able to observe key attachment behaviors as a means of assessing the quality of a Childs attachment to caregiver

PROCEDURE
controlled observation, to measure security of attachment . control conditions with a two way mirror. observe infants behavior:
- proximity seeking
- exploration and secure base behavior
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- response to reunion

(caregiver and child enter playroom)
1. child encouraged to explore
2. stranger comes in and tries to interact
3. caregiver leaves and the stranger stays
4. caregiver returns and stranger leaves
5. caregiver leaves the child alone
6. stranger returns
7. caregiver returns and is reunited with the child

Question 43

define secure base

Answer 43

secure base:
child explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver.
show moderate separation and stranger anxiety .
require and accept comfortat reunion
60%

Question 44

define insecure avoidant

Answer 44

insecure avoidant:
explore freely and do not seek secure base
little or no reaction when caregiver leaves and makes little effort when returns
show little stranger anxiety
do not require comfort at reunion
20-25%

Question 45

define insecure resistant

Answer 45

insecure resistant:
seek greater proximity than others so explore less
huge stranger and separation distress but resist comfort when reunited
3%

israel

Question 46

Ainsworth strange situation
findings
different attachment types

Answer 46

insecure avoidant
insecure resistant
secure base

Question 47

Ainsworth strange situation
evaluation; support for validity

Answer 47

attachment types is strongly predictive of later development. babies assed as secure typically of on to have better outcomes in many areas
insecure resistant attachment is associated with worst outcomes
evidence for validity ( explain subsequent outcomes)

Question 48

Ainsworth strange situation
evaluation: good reliability

Answer 48

very good inter rater reliability
different observers watching the same children in the strange situation generally agree on what attachment type to classify
situation is under controlled conditions and behavior categories are easy to observe

Question 49

Van Ijzendoorn study
AIM

Answer 49

to look at the proportions of secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant attachment across a range of countries
+ look at the differences within the same countries to get an idea of variations within a culture

Question 50

Van Ijzendoorn study
procedure

Answer 50

32 studies that used the strange situation to investigate the proportions infants with different attachment types were meta analysed (results combined and weighted for sample size)
*used only mother-infant pairs

used 8 different countries with a total of 1990 children (USA, UK, Holland, Germany, Japan, China, Israel, Sweden)

Question 51

Van Ijzendoorn study
findings

Answer 51

• in all countries secure attachment was the most common classification
  75% Britain
  50% China
• insecure resistant was overall the least common type
  3% Britiain
  30% Israel
• insecure avoidant attachments were most in Germany and least in Japan

variations within the same country was 150% greater than those between countries
USA: one study found only 46% securely attached compared to one sample of 90%

Question 52

Simonella study

Answer 52

study in Italy to see whether the proportions of babies of different attachment types still matched those found in previous studies

assed 76 12-month olds using strange situations

Question 53

Simonella study Findings

Answer 53

50% secure
36% insecure avoidant

secure attachment was at a lower rate than previous studies found
= Simonella suggest this is because increasing number of mothers of very young children work long hours + professional childcare used

= cultural changes can make a difference to patterns to attachment types

Question 54

Jin et al Study

Answer 54

to compare the proportions of attachment types in Korea to other studies
Strange Situation used to asses 87 children

Question 55

Jin et al Study Findings

Answer 55

overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most countries
most infants secure
only one child was insecure avoidant

distribution similar to found in Japan
= can be explained in terms of child rearing style

Question 56

cultural variations conclusions

Answer 56

secure attachment is the norm in a wide range of cultures - supports Bowlbys idea that attachment is innate and universal

BUT cultural practices have an influence on attachment type

Question 57

Evaluation of Cultural Variation studies
Large Samples

Answer 57

use of Meta Analysis = very large sample
Va Ijzendoorn sample of nearly 2000 children
large samples = increase internal validity by reducing impact of anomalous results

Question 58

Evaluation of Cultural Variation studies
unrepresentative of culture

Answer 58

claimed to study cultural variations BUT comparison were between countries NOT cultures
within a country there are many different cultures with different child rearing practices

eg: one sample might over represent people living in poverty, stress might affect caregiving

= comparisons between countries such as Italy and Korea have little meaning as the particular cultural characteristics need to be specified

Question 59

Evaluation of Cultural Variation studies
method of assessment

Answer 59

method of assessment is biased
Application of a British Theory to another culture is IMPOSED ETIC
(eg: idea that a lack of separation anxiety indicates insecure attachment but in Germany behaviour may be seen as more independence = not a sign of insecurity within cultural context

Question 60

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 60

focuses on the idea that the continual presence of nurture from a mother is essential for normal psychological development of babies and toddlers - emotionally + intellectually

Question 61

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
seperation vs deprivation

Answer 61

separation= not being in the presence of primary attachment figure
deprivation= lose element of care (due to extended separation)

Question 62

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
critical period

Answer 62

first 30 months
if a child is separated from their mother in the absence of suitable care + deprived of her emotional care for an extended period
= psychological damage is inevitable

Question 63

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
effects on development

Answer 63

intellectual development: Bowlby believed that if children were deprived of maternal care they would suffer delayed intellectual development
(abnormally Low IQ)

demonstrated in studies of adoption, Goldfarb found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions opposed to those fostered

Emotional development: Identified affectionless psychopathy- inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others + lacks remorse= prevents person developing normal relationships + associated with criminality

Question 64

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
44 thieves study

Answer 64

examined the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation

procedure- 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy (lack of affection, guilt and empathy)
families were also interviewed to establish either the teenagers had prolonged separation from mothers
+ control gout of non criminal but emotionally disturbed teenagers to see how often maternal serration/deprivation occurred in children who were not thieves

Question 65

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
44 thieves study
findings

Answer 65

14/44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths
-> 12/14 had experienced prolonged operation from their mothers in the first 2 years of their lives

5/ of remaining 30 thieves had experienced separations

control group: 2/44 had experienced long separations

= prolonged deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy

Question 66

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation evaluation 44 thieves study
evidence

Answer 66

evidence may be poor

44 thieves study had design flaws + bias . Bowlby carried out the assessment himself

studies of children orphaned during the second world war + children in institutions - traumatised and with poor after care = might cause later development difficulties rather than separation

Question 67

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation evaluation
counter evidence

Answer 67

Hilda Lewis replicated the 44 thieves study on a larger scale - 500 young people
separation did not predict criminality of difficulty forming close relationships

Question 68

Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation evaluation
critical period

Answer 68

critical period is a sensitive period
damage is NOT inevitable and there can be goof outcomes provided the child has some social interaction and good aftercare

Question 69

Romanian Orphans studies
Rutter ERA study procedure

Answer 69

English and Romanian Adoptee study

procedure: study 165 orphans adopted to Britain to test what extent good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions
physical, cognitive + emotional development assessed at 4,6,11 and 15.
control group of British adoptees

Question 70

Romanian Orphans studies
Rutter ERA study findings

Answer 70

first arrived: showed signs of delayed intellectual development + majority were undernourished

Age 11: showed differential rates of recovery that were related to their age of adoption
IQ of adoptees adopted before 6 months = 102
IQ of adoptees between 6 months and 2 years = 86
IQ of adoptees after 2 years = 77
(differences remained at age 16)

children adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment (symptoms of attention seeking, clinginess, social behaviour indiscriminate to adults )
before six months: rarely displayed disinhibited attachment

Question 71

Romanian Orphans studies
Bucharest Early Intervention project procedure

Answer 71

wanted to compare to control group who had never lived in a institution

Zeanah assessed attachment in 95 children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutional care
measured using the strange situation
+ carers asked about unusual social behaviours (disinhibited attachment- equally friendly to strangers and those they know - no stranger anxiety)

Question 72

Romanian Orphans studies
Bucharest Early Intervention project
findings

Answer 72

control group:
74% securely attached
20% disinhibited attachment

institutional group:
19% securely attached
65% disorganised attachment (struggle to maintain relationship)
44% disinhibited attachment

Question 73

effects of institutionalisation
disinhibited attachment

Answer 73

effect of spending time in a institution (equally friendly and affectionate to people they know well or strangers = usual because lack of stranger anxiety)
Rutter = due to an adaption to living with multiple caregivers during sensitive period

Question 74

effects of institutionalisation
mental retardation

Answer 74

Rutters study
most shows signs of retardation when they arrived in Britain BUT those who were adopted before they were 6 months caught up with control group by age 4

like emotional development, intellectual development can be restore provided adoption takes place before age of 6 months (age which attachments form)

Question 75

effects of institutionalisation evaluation
real life application

Answer 75

results of study have led to improvements in the way children care cared for in institutions
eg: homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child and one/two people play a central role = child has chance to develop normal attachments to help avoid disinhibited attachment

Question 76

effects of institutionalisation evaluation
extraneous variables

Answer 76

Romanian orphan studies have fewer extraneous variables than other studies
- prior children had experienced a loss or trauma before they were institutionalised = hard to observe effects of institutionalisation in isolation because children were dealing with multiple factors - confounding participant variable

romanian orphans - increased internal validity

Question 77

effects of institutionalisation evaluation
typical orphanages

Answer 77

Romanian orphanages were not typical

conditions were so bad that results cannot be applied to understanding the impact of better quality institutional care or any situation where children experienced deprivation

limitation because the unusual situational variables = lack generalisability

Question 78

attachment and later relationships
relationships in later childhood

Answer 78

attachment type is associated with quality of peer relationships in childhood
Kerns:
secure- form best quality childhood friendships
insecure - friendship difficulties

Wilson and Smith:
assessed attachment type and bullying involvement using questionnaires in 200 children in London
secure- unlikely to be involved
insecure avoidant- victims
insecure resistant - likely to be bullies

Question 79

attachment and later relationships
romantic patterns -McCarthy

Answer 79

McCarthy studied 40 adult women who were assessed when they were infants to establish their early attachment types
secure- best adult freinshsips and romantic partners
insecure resistant - problems maligning friendships
insecure avoidant- intimacy in romantic relationships

Question 80

attachment and later relationships
romantic partners -Shaver procedure

Answer 80

association between attachment and adult relationships

procedure- 620 replies to a low quiz oriented in a newspaper
section 1 assessed respondents current or most important relationship
section 2 assessed general love experiences
section 3 assessed attachment type

Question 81

attachment and later relationships
romantic partners -Shaver findings

Answer 81

= 56% of respondents were identified as securely attached - most likely to have good and long lasting romantic experiences
25% insecure avoidant- reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy
19% insecure resistant

Question 82

attachment and later relationships
as parents

Answer 82

internal working model affects child ability to parent their own children
based their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment tends to be passed on

Bailey et al : attachment of 99 women to their babies and their own mothers. assessed using strange situation . women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and to their mothers

Question 83

attachment and later relationships
evaluation- continuity

Answer 83

evidence on continuity of attachment type is mixed
internal woking model predicts continuity
some studies like McCarthy supports BUT Zimmerman assed infant attachment type and attachment to parents and found there was very little relationship between the quality of infant and adolescent attachment

Question 84

attachment and later relationships
evaluation- validity

Answer 84

assess attachment by interview or questionnaire year later and not in infancy - creates validity problems are relies on self report techniques and relies on accurate recollection of infancy

Question 85

attachment and later relationships
evaluation- association

Answer 85

assocaiotn does not mean causality
studies where infant attachment is associated with the quality of later relationship implies that infant attachment type causes the relationship
BUT alternative explanations for the continuity, such as a third environmental factor such as parenting style or temperament of individual

counters bowlbys internal working model

Question 86

Learning theory
Operant Conditioning

Answer 86

OC - learning to repeat behavior depending on the consequences
reinforcement
explain why babies cry for comfort= response form caregiver (eg feeding)
reinforcement in two way process
reinforced for crying + caregiver receives negative reinforcement b/c crying stops