Attachment Flashcards
________working model
An infant learns about a relationship from __________-the infant learns what relationship ______ and how partners in a relationship ______ towards each other.it is ________ because it is uses to ______ the behaviour of others in the future.
Internal working model
An infant learns about a relationship from experience-the infant learns what relationship are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other.it is operable because it is uses to predict the behaviour of others in the future.
Behaviours influenced by the internal working model
Childhood friendships: in a study of the Minnesota child found continuity between early _____________and later emotional behaviour. Individuals who were classified as ___________attached in infancy were highest rated for social _______.
Romantic relationships: individuals show were _______attached had longer lasting romantic relationships.
Mental health: children with attachment disorder have no preferred _________figure, an inability to interact and relate to others.
Behaviours influenced by the internal working model
Childhood friendships: in a study of the Minnesota child found continuity between early attachment and later emotional behaviour. Individuals who were classified as securely attached in infancy were highest rated for social competence.
Romantic relationships: individuals show were securely attached had longer lasting romantic relationships.
Mental health: children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure, an inability to interact and relate to others.
Evaluation
A Criticism of attachment research is that is is overly _________________. For example, the researcher by Hazan and shaver suggests that very early attachment experiences have a fixed effect on later ________relationships: children who are _________attached at one year of age are doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as _______. This is not the case as researchers have found plenty of instances where participants were happy relationships despite not having been ________ attached as infants.
Evaluation
A Criticism of attachment research is that is is overly deterministic. For example, the researcher by Hazan and shaver suggests that very early attachment experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships: children who are insecure attached at one year of age are doomed to experience emotionally unsatisfactory relationships as adults. This is not the case as researchers have found plenty of instances where participants were happy relationships despite not having been securely attached as infants.
Evaluation
The research linking the _______working model with ___________relationships is correlational rather than experimental. Therefore we can’t claim that the relationship between early attachment and, for example, later love styles is one of cause and _______. It is possible that both attachment style and later love styles are cause by something different such as innate _____________. An infants ______________ affects the way a parent responds and thus may be determine factor in infants attachment type. The individuals temperament may explain their issues good or bad with ________later in life .
Evaluation
The research linking the internal working model with later relationships is correlational rather than experimental. The fore we can’t claim that the relationship between early attachment and, for example, later love styles is one of cause and effect. It is possible that both attachment style and later love styles are cause by something different such as innate temperament. An infants temperament affects the way a parent responds and thus may be determine factor in infants attachment type. The individuals temperament may explain their issues good or bad with relationships later in life.
What is institutionalisation?
It refers to children spending a period of _____ within an institute such as an orphanage where there is often little ________ care provided.
What is institutionalisation?
It refers to children spending a period of time within an institute such as an orphanage where there is often little emotional care provided.
Describe the effects of institutionalisation
________ detachment disorder - This is caused by an extreme lack of sensitive responsiveness from a parent in early life and it leads top children unable to _________ or love others, they ultimately end up isolated, selfish and aggressive and can end up being sociopathic.
____________ attachment disorder- This is where a child may select attachment figures _____________ which can cause them to become overly comfortable around strangers.
Reactive detachment disorder - This is caused by an extreme lack of sensitive responsiveness from a parent in early life and it leads top children unable to trust or love others, they ultimately end up isolated, selfish and aggressive and can end up being sociopathic.
Disinhibited attachment disorder- This is where a child may select attachment figures discriminately which can cause them to become overly comfortable around strangers.
Describe evidence for the effects of institutionalisation
A longitudinal study was conducted on _____ Romanian orphans who had been adopted to the UK to see what extent good care could make up for effects institutions.
Many aspects of the child’s development were assessed at 4, 6, 11 and 15 years of age. A control group of ______ British children adopted at the same time was used. They found that 50% of the children showed signs of mental retardation/____________. Children adopted before 6 months has an average IQ of _______, between 6 and two years were 90 and after 2 years 80.
Children adopted after 6 months were more likely to show signs of ________ attachment disorder and disinhibited attachment disorder.
Zenah assesed attachment in 95 children aged 1-3 years old that spent 90% of their life ___________. Compared to a control group of 50 participants. He used the strange situation to measure attachment type. He found that there were 65% insecure and 19% were _________. The control group had ________ secure.
A longitudinal study was conducted on 156 Romanian orphans who had been adopted to the UK to see what extent good care could make up for effects institutions.
Many aspects of the child’s development were assessed at 4, 6, 11 and 15 years of age. A control group of 52 British children adopted at the same time was used. They found that 50% of the children showed signs of mental retardation/malnourished. Children adopted before 6 months has an average IQ of 100, between 6 and two years were 90 and after 2 years 80.
Children adopted after 6 months were more likely to show signs of reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited attachment disorder.
Zenah assesed attachment in 95 children aged 1-3 years old that spent 90% of their life institutionalised. Compared to a control group of 50 participants. He used the strange situation to measure attachment type. He found that there were 65% insecure and 19% were secure. The control group had 74% secure.
Evaluate these roman orphanage studies
:( - The use of a longitudinal study means that it is at risk to _________ (people dropping out). This was in fact the case as there was a fairly large amount of dropouts, this means the sample could be biased as the people that stayed could be ones of a particular personality etc. This reduces the value of the __________ the research gives about institutionalisation.
:) - There are practical applications that came with this research, for example many orphanages now work in a way that each orphan has a key ________ that they are looked after by in order to create a strong bond between them, instead of having many different workers.
:( - The data collection methods are criticised for being __________ as there is no factual measurement. They used self reports which are prone to social desirability, as the participants could easily lie about their attachments.
:) - Often research that has been done into institutionalisation uses children that have been through other situations such as _____, whereas the sample in this where only put through institutionalisation so the effects are isolated.
Evaluate these roman orphanage studies
:( - The use of a longitudinal study means that it is at risk to attrition (people dropping out). This was in fact the case as there was a fairly large amount of dropouts, this means the sample could be biased as the people that stayed could be ones of a particular personality etc. This reduces the value of the insight the research gives about institutionalisation.
:) - There are practical applications that came with this research, for example many orphanages now work in a way that each orphan has a key worker that they are looked after by in order to create a strong bond between them, instead of having many different workers.
:( - The data collection methods are criticised for being subjective as there is no factual measurement. They used self reports which are prone to social desirability, as the participants could easily lie about their attachments.
:) - Often research that has been done into institutionalisation uses children that have been through other situations such as abuse, whereas the sample in this where only put through institutionalisation so the effects are isolated.
Outline the influence of early attachment on later relationships
Relationships with the ________ provides the child with an internal working model which is a _______ of self worth and will effect all other relationships in the future.
Attachment types are associated with the quality of peer relationships. Bullying behaviour can be predicted from attachment types. 196 children ages 7-1 were given questionnaires about bullying. They found that ________ children were very unlikely to be involved in ________, avoidant were most likely to be victims, and resistant the bullies.
A love quiz was created and printed in a local newspaper which had three sections; assessed participants current relationship, general number of love _________ and assessed attachment type. They found that 56% of participants were __________, 25% avoidant and 19% resistant. _________ participants were most likely to be in a good long lasting relationship, avoidant tended to be jealous of intimacy and resistant were likely to be single.
Outline the influence of early attachment on later relationships
Relationships with the monotropy provides the child with an internal working model which is a template of self worth and will effect all other relationships in the future.
Attachment types are associated with the quality of peer relationships. Bullying behaviour can be predicted from attachment types. 196 children ages 7-1 were given questionnaires about bullying. They found that secure children were very unlikely to be involved in bullying, avoidant were most likely to be victims, and resistant the bullies.
A love quiz was created and printed in a local newspaper which had three sections; assessed participants current relationship, general number of love experiences and assessed attachment type. They found that 56% of participants were secure, 25% avoidant and 19% resistant. Secure participants were most likely to be in a good long lasting relationship, avoidant tended to be jealous of intimacy and resistant were likely to be single.
Evaluate the influence of early attachment on later relationships
:( - Most of the research used _________ report techniques which are at risk to social desirability and given the sensitive topic of the research this is very likely to have occurred, devaluing the value of the insight.
:( - The _____________ nature of the research as it involved asking participants about their childhood which realistically they may not recall accurately.
Evaluate the influence of early attachment on later relationships
:( - Most of the research used self report techniques which are at risk to social desirability and given the sensitive topic of the research this is very likely to have occurred, devaluing the value of the insight.
:( - The retrospective nature of the research as it involved asking participants about their childhood which realistically they may not recall accurately.
Outline Bowlby’s theory of Maternal Deprivation
The theory is concerned with prolonged _____________ from the mother and the effects on the children that this has, emphasising how important continuous care from a mother figure is essential.
If separations are ________ it is acceptable and wont damage the child, it is when these become common and for prolonged periods when it becomes deprivation where attachments can be broken.
Bowlby stated that the first 2.5 years are the critical period and if separation occurs here then ______________ damage is inevitable.
Damage can be mental retardation, lowered IQ, which Goldfarb found when comparing IQ in children who were fostered to children in institutions. Bowlby also said that it could lead to ________ psychopathy, which is where children cannot feel __________ and prevents children from forming normal relationships.
Outline Bowlby’s theory of Maternal Deprivation
The theory is concerned with prolonged separation from the mother and the effects on the children that this has, emphasising how important continuous care from a mother figure is essential.
If separations are brief it is acceptable and wont damage the child, it is when these become common and for prolonged periods when it becomes deprivation where attachments can be broken.
Bowlby stated that the first 2.5 years are the critical period and if separation occurs here then psychological damage is inevitable.
Damage can be mental retardation, lowered IQ, which Goldfarb found when comparing IQ in children who were fostered to children in institutions. Bowlby also said that it could lead to affectionless psychopathy, which is where children cannot feel remorse and prevents children from forming normal relationships.
Outline research into Maternal Deprivation
Bowlby had 44 criminal teens and interviewed them for signs of affectionless psychopathy and lack of _________ to their victims. Their ________ were also interviewed to see whether they had had prolonged separations.
He found that ____/44 thieves were AP’s, of the 14 12 had experienced long term __________ at a young age. In contrast only 5/30 had experienced separations.
He concluded that early separation can cause affectionless psychopathy.
Outline research into Maternal Deprivation
Bowlby had 44 criminal teens and interviewed them for signs of affectionless psychopathy and lack of affection to their victims. Their families were also interviewed to see whether they had had prolonged separations.
He found that 14/44 thieves were AP’s, of the 14 12 had experienced long term separation at a young age. In contrast only 5/30 had experienced separations.
He concluded that early separation can cause affectionless psychopathy.
Evaluate Maternal Deprivation
:( - His research he used to support his theory is flawed as there are many confounding variables such as the fact that his study on _____ orphans were not just deprived as children but they were often _______from atrocities of war.
:( - Furthermore Bowlby carried out all the __________ himself and thus it is at risk of extreme researcher bias as the results could have been _________. This would reduce the value of the insight into maternal deprivation in children.
:( - Lewis replicated the 44 thieves study with ______children and found no relationship between criminality and ___________ as a child. This shows other factors could have been present causing AP.
Evaluate Maternal Deprivation
:( - His research he used to support his theory is flawed as there are many confounding variables such as the fact that his study on war orphans were not just deprived as children but they were often traumatised from atrocities of war.
:( - Furthermore Bowlby carried out all the interviews himself and thus it is at risk of extreme researcher bias as the results could have been subjective. This would reduce the value of the insight into maternal deprivation in children.
:( - Lewis replicated the 44 thieves study with 500 children and found no relationship between criminality and separation as a child. This shows other factors could have been present causing AP.
Outline Cultural Variations in individualistic and collectivist cultures
Different cultures have different ______, laws social norms and customs etc. If there is difference in social norms it is natural to assume that attachment types ______ across different countries. People use different child ________ practices when bringing up their children which encourages them to develop different qualities and abilities.
Outline Cultural Variations in individualistic and collectivist cultures
Different cultures have different rules, laws social norms and customs etc. If there is difference in social norms it is natural to assume that attachment types vary across different countries. People use different child rearing practices when bringing up their children which encourages them to develop different qualities and abilities.
Outline research done into cultural differences in attachment types
Van __________ conducted a ________________ of 32 studies from 8 countries based on around 2000 children.
Findings: All countries = __________ attachment most common.
Proportion varied:
Country Secure Avoidant Resistant
UK 75% 22% 3%
Japan 68% 5% 27%
China 50% 25% 25%
Germany 57% 35% 8%
- Germany had the highest number of _________children.
- Japan had few avoidant, _______ resistant.
-150% more variation within cultures than between (USA study had 90% but another study had 46%)
Outline research done into cultural differences in attachment types
Van Ijzendoorn conducted a meta-analysis of 32 studies from 8 countries based on around 2000 children.
Findings: All countries = secure attachment most common.
Proportion varied:
Country Secure Avoidant Resistant
UK 75% 22% 3%
Japan 68% 5% 27%
China 50% 25% 25%
Germany 57% 35% 8%
- Germany had the highest number of avoidant children.
- Japan had few avoidant, high resistant.
-150% more variation within cultures than between (USA study had 90% but another study had 46%)
Evaluate research into cultural differences in attachment types
:) - The study used ________ children which gives it a very high __________ validity, meaning the results about cultural differences in attachment styles can be generalised to the target population of other children around the world.
:( - Although a large number of studies were used nearly half of them were done in _______ therefore the study has culture bias and we must be cautious when generalising the results across different cultures. This limits the value of the insight into cultural variations in styles.
:( - This study used the SSC which has been criticised for imposed etic and was made solely for individualistic cultures originally. This means we must be cautious when ____________results as the SSC might not be suitable to measure attachments in collectivist cultures.
:( - Reductionist as it doesn’t take other factors into account such as individual differences.
Evaluate research into cultural differences in attachment types
:) - The study used 2000 children which gives it a very high population validity, meaning the results about cultural differences in attachment styles can be generalised to the target population of other children around the world.
:( - Although a large number of studies were used nearly half of them were done in US therefore the study has culture bias and we must be cautious when generalising the results across different cultures. This limits the value of the insight into cultural variations in styles.
:( - This study used the SSC which has been criticised for imposed etic and was made solely for individualistic cultures originally. This means we must be cautious when extrapolating results as the SSC might not be suitable to measure attachments in collectivist cultures.
:( - Reductionist as it doesn’t take other factors into account such as individual differences.
Outline The Strange Situation (research into children’s attachment behaviour)
She had a sample of 100 middle class American infants and observed them through a two ______ mirror. Specifically watching how children reacted to; Separation ________, stranger ________ and reunion behaviour.
What they did was:
1) Parent entered room for three mins with adult and explored room
2) Stranger enters and joins, adults talk
3) Parent _______
4) Parent returns and stranger leaves
5) Parent settles infant and leaves
6) Stranger returns
7) Parent returns and stranger leaves
Results: She found three attachment types; secure (66%), insecure avoidant (22%) and insecure resistant (12%).
Outline The Strange Situation (research into children’s attachment behaviour)
She had a sample of 100 middle class American infants and observed them through a two way mirror. Specifically watching how children reacted to; Separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and reunion behaviour.
What they did was:
1) Parent entered room for three mins with adult and explored room
2) Stranger enters and joins, adults talk
3) Parent leaves
4) Parent returns and stranger leaves
5) Parent settles infant and leaves
6) Stranger returns
7) Parent returns and stranger leaves
Results: She found three attachment types; secure (66%), insecure avoidant (22%) and insecure resistant (12%).
Explain Ainsworth’s three attachment types
Secure - Upset when put under __________ anxiety, avoidant of stranger but curious, instantly soothed when mother returns. Responsive and sensitive caregiver.
Insecure Avoidant - Unconcerned by mothers __________, avoidant of both, unresponsive in reunion. Unresponsive caregiver.
Insecure ___________ - Overly distressed when mother left, fear of stranger, clinginess + rejection on reunion. Inconsistent caregiver.
Explain Ainsworth’s three attachment types
Secure - Upset when put under separation anxiety, avoidant of stranger but curious, instantly soothed when mother returns. Responsive and sensitive caregiver.
Insecure Avoidant - Unconcerned by mothers absence, avoidant of both, unresponsive in reunion. Unresponsive caregiver.
Insecure resistant - Overly distressed when mother left, fear of stranger, clinginess + rejection on reunion. Inconsistent caregiver.
Evaluate Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
:( - Lacks __________ validity as it was fake environment with unrealistic task. Means it is difficult to generalise the three different attachment styles to other children in the real world.
:( - The SSC has been criticised for imposed etic. The tool is based on western practices and ignores cultural norms and practices in collectivist cultures. We must take caution when using it in cultures it is not designed for.
:( - Low pop _________, hard to generalise
:( - Criticised for being over ___________, other psychologists believe that you cant fit every child into one of three attachment types and that there are large individual differences between children that play a huge part. This lowers the value of the insight into children’s attachment types and development.
:( - Lacks ecological validity as it was fake environment with unrealistic task. Means it is difficult to generalise the three different attachment styles to other children in the real world.
:( - The SSC has been criticised for imposed etic. The tool is based on western practices and ignores cultural norms and practices in collectivist cultures. We must take caution when using it in cultures it is not designed for.
:( - Low pop validity, hard to generalise
:( - Criticised for being over simplified, other psychologists believe that you cant fit every child into one of three attachment types and that there are large individual differences between children that play a huge part. This lowers the value of the insight into children’s attachment types and development.
Outline Bowlbys Monotropic Theory
Bowlby stated that it is likely that adults are innately programmed to become attached to their children as attachments have short and long term benefits such as survival.
There are four main features of Bowlby’s theory;
Monotropy - He suggested that the child attaches to _______ particular caregiver which is the mother (not necessarily the biological one). The law of continuity is the more consistent a child’s care = better quality of attachment. The law of accumulated separation is the separations from the mother adding up affecting the attachment.
Social ___________ - These are important and ensure interaction takes place, they are behaviours such as smiling crying etc.
Critical Period - This is biological and if an attachment is not formed in this critical period of 2.5 years then it may not take place at all.
Internal Working Model - This relationship with the monotropy provides infants with an IWM of relationships. This is a template of self ________ and they will apply it to all future relationships.
Outline Bowlbys Monotropic Theory
Bowlby stated that it is likely that adults are innately programmed to become attached to their children as attachments have short and long term benefits such as survival.
There are four main features of Bowlby’s theory;
Monotropy - He suggested that the child attaches to one particular caregiver which is the mother (not necessarily the biological one). The law of continuity is the more consistent a child’s care = better quality of attachment. The law of accumulated separation is the separations from the mother adding up affecting the attachment.
Social Releasers - These are important and ensure interaction takes place, they are behaviours such as smiling crying etc.
Critical Period - This is biological and if an attachment is not formed in this critical period of 2.5 years then it may not take place at all.
Internal Working Model - This relationship with the monotropy provides infants with an IWM of relationships. This is a template of self worth and they will apply it to all future relationships.
Evaluate Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
:) - Brazleton observed mothers and babies interact and showed that there was interactional synchrony. In further experiments he instructed the PCG to ignore the babies signals (social releases). He found that after some distress the babies curled up and remained motionless. The fact the children responded so strongly supports Bowlbys theory.
:) - Hazan printed a love quiz in an American newspaper. They collected information about individuals early ____________ and their current attachments wth loved ones. They found that ____________ attached children had happy and long lasting relationships in later life. insecurely attached children found it hard to form relationships. This supports the IWM.
:( - Bowlby stated that the only use of the father was to support the mother however Lamb indicated that as an infant grows older they show a preference towards the father, this therefore contradicts Bowlbys theory.
:( - Other psychologists criticise Bowlbys mono-tropic theory for not accepting the role of the child’s _______________. It has been shown that some babies are born more social or more anxious than others. Therefore this could explain later social behaviour rather than the IWM.
Evaluate Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
:) - Brazleton observed mothers and babies interact and showed that there was interactional synchrony. In further experiments he instructed the PCG to ignore the babies signals (social releases). He found that after some distress the babies curled up and remained motionless. The fact the children responded so strongly supports Bowlbys theory.
:) - Hazan printed a love quiz in an American newspaper. They collected information about individuals early attachments and their current attachments wth loved ones. They found that securely attached children had happy and long lasting relationships in later life. insecurely attached children found it hard to form relationships. This supports the IWM.
:( - Bowlby stated that the only use of the father was to support the mother however Lamb indicated that as an infant grows older they show a preference towards the father, this therefore contradicts Bowlbys theory.
:( - Other psychologists criticise Bowlbys mono-tropic theory for not accepting the role of the child’s temperament. It has been shown that some babies are born more social or more anxious than others. Therefore this could explain later social behaviour rather than the IWM.
Explain classical conditioning linking it to attachment
Milk provided by the mother is an _____________ stimulus which provides an unconditioned response in the baby of relief from hunger.
This response is automatic and does not need to be learnt. The neutral stimulus is the __________, and through repetition of feeding the feeder becomes the conditioned stimulus. Therefore whenever the baby is hungry at just the sight of the feeder it will link the CS and the __________together and become relieved.
Explain operant conditioning linking it to attachment
When the baby feels uncomfortable because it is hungry they experience a _________ state. This drive state motivates the baby to find a way to lessen the discomfort. In the early years the baby can do nothing but cry and being fed leads to drive reduction as the child is satisfied. The food is the _______ reinforcer and the child learns that the food is a reward. The person that feeds the baby becomes the secondary reinforcer and the infant thus seeks to be near to this feeder as they are the source of reward and the attachment is formed.
Explain classical conditioning linking it to attachment
Milk provided by the mother is an unconditioned stimulus which provides an unconditioned response in the baby of relief from hunger.
This response is automatic and does not need to be learnt. The neutral stimulus is the feeder, and through repetition of feeding the feeder becomes the conditioned stimulus. Therefore whenever the baby is hungry at just the sight of the feeder it will link the CS and the UCR together and become relieved.
Explain operant conditioning linking it to attachment
When the baby feels uncomfortable because it is hungry they experience a drive state. This drive state motivates the baby to find a way to lessen the discomfort. In the early years the baby can do nothing but cry and being fed leads to drive reduction as the child is satisfied. The food is the primary reinforcer and the child learns that the food is a reward. The person that feeds the baby becomes the secondary reinforcer and the infant thus seeks to be near to this feeder as they are the source of reward and the attachment is formed.
Evaluate the learning theories explanation of attachment
Contradictory evidence from animal studies
:( - Lorenz showed how young animals ___________ on carers who don’t necessarily feed them. Harlow’s monkeys chose to spend contact comfort over drive reduction, showing us that the value of insight into human attachments is limited.
Counter evidence from human studies
:( - Schaffer found that babies developed a primary attachment to their biological mother regardless of who did most the ___________, this directly contradicts the learning theories explanation.
Too oversimplified
:( - Learning theory ignores other factors associated with forming attachments such as _______________ synchrony and reciprocity. Furthermore studies have shown that the best quality attachments are with sensitive and responsive caregivers who respond to infants signals.
Evaluate the learning theories explanation of attachment
Contradictory evidence from animal studies
:( - Lorenz showed how young animals imprint on carers who don’t necessarily feed them. Harlow’s monkeys chose to spend contact comfort over drive reduction, showing us that the value of insight into human attachments is limited.
Counter evidence from human studies
:( - Schaffer found that babies developed a primary attachment to their biological mother regardless of who did most the feeding, this directly contradicts the learning theories explanation.
Too oversimplified
:( - Learning theory ignores other factors associated with forming attachments such as interactional synchrony and reciprocity. Furthermore studies have shown that the best quality attachments are with sensitive and responsive caregivers who respond to infants signals.
Outline Lorenz’s Animal Study into attachment
Lorenz divided up a clutch of goose eggs, where half were hatched with the __________ goose and the other half in an incubator where Lorenz was the first living thing they saw. He found that the incubator group followed him around everywhere whereas the control group stayed with the mother and ignored him. When there two groups were mixed they stuck with there original attachment figure.
Lorenz called this ___________ and he suggested that there was a ___________period of a few hours depending on the species and if imprinting does not occur then the chicks do not attach to the mother figure.
Evaluate Lorenz’s Animal Study
:( - This type of research will always have animal ________ and we must be cautious when applying the findings to humans as we are very different to other species, cognitively that is.
Outline Lorenz’s Animal Study into attachment
Lorenz divided up a clutch of goose eggs, where half were hatched with the mother goose and the other half in an incubator where Lorenz was the first living thing they saw. He found that the incubator group followed him around everywhere whereas the control group stayed with the mother and ignored him. When there two groups were mixed they stuck with there original attachment figure.
Lorenz called this imprinting and he suggested that there was a critical period of a few hours depending on the species and if imprinting does not occur then the chicks do not attach to the mother figure.
Evaluate Lorenz’s Animal Study
:( - This type of research will always have animal bias and we must be cautious when applying the findings to humans as we are very different to other species, cognitively that is.
