ATOMIC NUCLEAR

Question 1

Briefly describe the Bohr Theory of the atom.

Answer 1

The Bohr Theory states:* Electrons can only exist in fixed orbits or energy levels.* These energy levels are at specific distances from the nucleus.* Any energy emitted/absorbed from/by an atom will be the result of an electron jumping from one energy level to another.

Question 2

In the Bohr Model, what does the hydrogen electron orbit?

Answer 2

The Bohr Model states that the hydrogen electron orbits the nucleus.## FootnoteNote: all models assume that electrons orbit the nucleus, but Bohr’s model is unique in that in most chemistry courses and on the AP Chemistry exam, the Bohr model is usually restricted to the hydrogen atom only.

Question 3

In the quantum mechanical model, where does the hydrogen electron exist?

Answer 3

In a spherical probability cloud around the nucleus, called the 1s orbital.## FootnoteNote: the quantum mechanical model is the one used in most chemistry courses and on the AP Chem exam.

Question 4

An atomic electron has not absorbed any energy. Which state is it in?

Answer 4

The atomic electron is in the ground state.## FootnoteThe ground state is the lowest possible energy orbital that any atomic electron may occupy.

Question 5

When a ground state hydrogen electron absorbs energy, what happens to it?

Answer 5

The hydrogen electron moves into an excited state.## FootnoteEx: a ground-state electron in hydrogen is in the 1s state. If it absorbs the right amount of energy, it can jump into the 3p state, which is excited (higher) in energy than the ground state.

Question 6

What has to happen to an electron in order for it to change from the ground state to an excited state?

Answer 6

The electron must absorb energy, typically in the form of a photon, to go from the ground state to an excited state.

Question 7

What direction does energy flow when an atomic electron drops from the excited state back to the ground state?

Answer 7

Energy is released from the atom.## FootnoteSince the ground state is lower in energy than the excited state, the change from excited to ground is always accompanied by a release of energy from the atom.

Question 8

Define:absorption spectrum

Answer 8

The absorption spectrum is the unique set of wavelengths of light absorbed by a specific substance or medium.## FootnoteThe absorption spectrum is typically displayed as a set of dark lines (or missing lines) in the spectrum, representing the absorbed wavelengths. This is the third bar in the image.

Question 9

Define:emission spectrum

Answer 9

The emission spectrum is the unique spectrum of bright lines or bands of light emitted by a particular substance when it is electronically excited.## FootnoteThis is the second bar in the image.

Question 10

How do a substance’s absorption and emission spectral lines compare to one another?

Answer 10

The absorption and emission spectral lines will overlap one another perfectly.## FootnoteBoth absorption and emission energy values are dependent on electrons moving between energy levels. Jumping to a higher level (dark absorption line) should be in the exact same position as jumping to a lower level (bright emission line) since it’s the exact same amount of energy absorbed and emitted, respectively.

Question 11

What is the quantum number n called?

Answer 11

n is the principal quantum number, and is commonly referred to as the shell the electron is in.## Footnoten can have any whole number value greater than or equal to 1.

Question 12

As the principle quantum number n increases, what happens to the energy?

Answer 12

As n increases, energy increases.## FootnoteRemember: assume that the quantum number l stays constant unless told otherwise.

Question 13

1. What is the quantum number l called?2. What does it represent?

Answer 13

1. l is the angular momentum (or azimuthal) number.2. It represents an electron’s subshell.## FootnoteIf l = 0, the electron is in an s subshell. If l = 1, the electron is in a p subshell. If l = 2, the electron is in a d subshell. If l = 3, the electron is in a f subshell.l can take any integer value from 0 to n - 1, but most chemistry courses and the AP Chem exam will only explicitly test 0 to 3.

Question 14

1. In orbital theory, what do s, p, d, and f indicate?2. How are these values determined?

Answer 14

1. The letters s, p, d, f symbolize the subshells in which an electron can exist.2. The value of the quantum number l determines the subshell. s, p, d, and f subshells correspond to l = 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

Question 15

1. What is the quantum number m or m_l called?2. What does it represent?

Answer 15

1. m or m_l is the magnetic quantum number.2. It represents the orbital in which an electron exists.## Footnotem can hold any integer value between -l and +l, including 0.Ex: for an electron whose l = 1 (p subshell), m can equal -1, 0, or 1. These values correspond to the p_x, p_y, and p_z orbitals, respectively.

Question 16

How many orbitals can be found in a p subshell?

Answer 16

A p subshell has three orbitals: p_x, p_y, and p_z.## FootnoteRemember: l = 1 for any p subshell. m_l can range from -l to l (in this case: -1, 0, or 1) in a p subshell. These values correspond to the x, y, and z orbitals.

Question 17

1. What is the quantum number s or m_s called?2. What does it represent?

Answer 17

1. s or m_s is the spin quantum number.2. It represents the spin direction of an electron.## Footnotes can have exactly one of two values, +1/2 and -1/2, corresponding to spin-up and spin-down. These two values are inherently equal in energy.

Question 18

What is the value of l for any electron in an s orbital?

Answer 18

For any s electron, l = 0.## Footnotel can range from any value from 0 to n-1, and determines the subshell. By definition, if l = 0 for an electron, that electron exists in an s orbital.

Question 19

What is the maximum number of electrons found in an orbital?

Answer 19

Each orbital can hold up to 2 electrons.## FootnoteNote: When one orbital hold two electrons simultaneously, one must be spin-up and the other spin-down.

Question 20

With 5 orbitals, how many electrons can a d subshell hold?

Answer 20

A d subshell holds up to 10 electrons.## FootnoteEach of the 5 orbitals can have 1 spin-up electron and 1 spin-down, for a total of 2(5)=10 total.

Question 21

What are the geometric shapes of the following orbitals?* s orbitals* p orbitals* d orbitals

Answer 21

• s = ‘spherical’* p = ‘peanut’* d = ‘donut’

Question 22

How many electrons are there in a filled shell with principal quantum number n?

Answer 22

There are 2n² electrons in the filled shell.## FootnoteEx: For the n = 2 shell:2(2²) = 8This shell has 4 orbitals: 2s, 2p_x, 2p_y, 2p_z. Each of those can hold 2 electrons, for a total of 8 in the shell.

Question 23

How many orbitals are there per shell with principal quantum number n?

Answer 23

A shell will have n² orbitals.## FootnoteEx: For the shell n = 2 there are 2² = 4 orbitals total. They are the 2s, 2p_x, 2p_y, and 2p_z orbitals.

Question 24

How many orbitals are there per subshell with azimuthal quantum number l?

Answer 24

A subshell will have 2(l) + 1 orbitals.## FootnoteEx: For a d subshell, l = 2, and there are 2(2) + 1 = 5 orbitals total. They are the d_xy, d_xz, d_yz, d_x²_-y², and d_z² orbitals.

Question 25

How many electrons can be found in the following subshells?* s subshells* p subshells* d subshells* f subshells

Answer 25

• An s subshell holds 1x2=2 electrons* A p subshell holds 3x2=6 electrons* A d subshell holds 5x2=10 electrons* An f subshell holds 7x2=14 electrons

Question 26

Given two specific subshells, what determines which one will fill with electrons first?

Answer 26

The subshell with the lowest total energy will fill first.## FootnoteTotal energy can be approximated as E=n+l, where n=principal quantum # and l=azimuthal quantum #.Ex: For a 4s subshell, n = 4 and l = 0, so n+l = 4. So a 4s subshell will fill before a 3d subshell, which has n = 3, l = 2, and n+l = 5. Note: in the case of a tie between two subshells with the same n+l value, the one with the lower n will fill first.

Question 27

Arrange the following subshells in terms of increasing energy:4s, 6s, 3d, 2s, 4f

Answer 27

In order of increasing energy:2s < 4s < 3d < 6s < 4f## FootnoteThe total order of all relevant subshells in the full Periodic Table is:1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d

Question 28

For a given value of n, please rank the following subshells in order of increasing energy:p, s, f, d

Answer 28

In order of increasing energy:s < p < d < f## FootnoteThese subshells differ in their value of l. For a given n, the higher the l, the higher the energy.

Question 29

Explain each of the 3 terms for the spectroscopic notation for an atom’s electronic structure?## FootnoteEx: the 3d⁵ depiction of Chromium’s valence electrons.

Answer 29

The spectroscopic notation denotes the three most important pieces of information about a subshell: its energy level (n), subshell (l), and the total number of electrons it contains.## FootnoteSo Chromium’s 3d⁵ explains that there are 5 valence electrons, with n = 3 and l = 2.

Question 30

Give both the full and condensed form of the spectroscopic notation for Calcium (Ca).

Answer 30

The full electronic structure of Calcium is: 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²In condensed notation: [Ar] 4s²## FootnoteSince every up to 3p⁶ is completely filled, they are not chemically relevant - only valence electrons participate in chemical reactions. Therefore, they can all be abbreviated as the noble gas from the previous row, in this case Ar, which represents the element with fully-filled subshells up to 3p⁶.

Question 31

Define:the Aufbau Principle

Answer 31

The Aufbau Principle describes the order in which subshells are filled with electrons as atomic number increases. Aufbau is German for ‘Building Up’.## FootnoteShells/subshells of lower energy get filled with electrons before higher energy shells/subshells.Ex: The 1s subshell fills first, then 2s, then 2p, and so on.

Question 32

Define:Hund’s Rules

Answer 32

Hund’s Rules describe the order of adding electrons to an unfilled subshell.## FootnoteHund’s Rules explain that when electrons are added to a subshell that has more than 1 orbital (p, d, or f), each orbital first receives a single electron, each spin-up, until each orbital in the subshell has one electron contained within it.Only once the orbital is half full will spin-down electrons be added, one per orbital, until the subshell is completely filled.

Question 33

Define:the Pauli Exclusion Principle

Answer 33

The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that two electrons in the same orbital must be of different spins.## FootnoteThe result of this rule is that two electrons in the same atom will never have exactly the same 4 quantum numbers (n, l, m_l, m_s).

Question 34

Define:the Bohr Model of the hydrogen atom

Answer 34

The Bohr Model describes a hydrogen atom as a postively-charged nucleus which is orbited by a single electron. The electron can only exist in fixed energy orbits, called orbitals.## FootnoteThe differences in energy between orbitals are known as the energy levels of the hydrogen atom.

Question 35

How can the possible energies of an electron in a hydrogen atom be calculated, according to the Bohr model?

Answer 35

The possible energies (E_n) of an electron in a hydrogen atom correspond to the formula:E_n = -13.6/n² eV## FootnoteWhere: n is the principal quantum number of the orbital containing the electron.Note: energy will necessarily be negative for all values of n.

Question 36

How will energy vary as the value of n increases, according to the Bohr Model?

Answer 36

Energy increases as n increases.E_n = -13.6/n² eV## FootnoteE_n is the energy of between nucleus and electron and will always be negative.Since n appears in the denominator, increasing n corresponds to the energy becoming less negative or more positive.

Question 37

What is the equation for energy difference of an electron as it changes from an orbital with principal quantum number n_i (initial) to n_f (final), according to the Bohr Model?

Answer 37

The energy difference is:ΔE = -13.6(1/n_f²-1/n_i²) eV## FootnoteThis shortcuts having to apply the Bohr Model energy formula to both orbitals and then subtract the initial energy from the final energy.

Question 38

How much has energy increased, if an electron jumps from n=1 to n=2?

Answer 38

10.2 eV## FootnoteFrom ΔE = -13.6(1/n_f²-1/n_i²) eVn_f = 2, n_i = 1, giving ΔE = -13.6(1/2²-1/1²) = -13.6(1/4 -1) = -13.6(-3/4) = 10.2 eV

Question 39

Define:the emission spectrum of a hydrogen atom

Answer 39

Hydrogen’s emission spectrum is the set of frequencies of light that a hydrogen atom can emit.## FootnoteThese particular frequencies are constant, and are uniquely characteristic of hydrogen.Every element has a distinct emission spectrum; the presence of an element can be proven by observing its unique spectral lines.

Question 40

How does the Bohr Model explain the frequency of the spectral lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen?

Answer 40

Each emission spectral line is a result of the difference in energies between orbitals in the Bohr Model.## FootnoteWhen an electron in a higher energy orbital falls into a lower energy orbital, it releases energy in the form of a photon. The frequency of the photon is determined by the difference in energy levels of the two orbitals. A large energy difference results in a higher photon frequency.

Question 41

What are the characteristics of a proton?

Answer 41

• A proton is a positively-charged subatomic particle. * Protons have mass of 1 AMU.* A proton is found inside the nucleus of an atom. * Protons contribute to the atomic mass and the atomic number.

Question 42

What are the characteristics of a neutron?

Answer 42

• A neutron is an uncharged subatomic particle. * Neutrons have mass of 1 AMU. * A neutron is found inside the nucleus of an atom. * Neutrons contribute to the atomic mass, but not the atomic number.

Question 43

Define:the atomic mass, A, of an atom

Answer 43

An atom’s atomic mass corresponds to the sum of the neutrons and protons contained in the nucleus of that element.## FootnoteThe units of atomic mass are atomic mass units, AMU.

Question 44

What is the atomic mass, A, of an atom of the standard isotope of oxygen?

Answer 44

16 AMU## FootnoteThe standard isotope of oxygen has 8 protons, and 8 neutrons, for a total of 16.It is worth memorizing the atomic weights of some commonly-tested standard isotopes for the MCAT:A(H) = 1A(He) = 4A(C) = 12A(N) = 14A(O) = 16A(Na) = 23

Question 45

Define:the atomic number, Z, of an element

Answer 45

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons contained within the element’s nucleus.## FootnoteAtomic number is a characteristic property of an element. For instance, all atoms with 1 proton in their nucleus are hydrogen atoms, regardless of how many neutrons exist in the nucleus.

Question 46

What is the atomic number, Z, of an atom of carbon?

Answer 46

Z(C) = 6## FootnoteIt is worth memorizing the following values of Z for the MCAT, as they are the most-commonly tested:Z(H) = 1Z(He) = 2Z(C) = 6Z(N) = 7Z(O) = 8Z(Na) = 11Z(Cl) = 17

Question 47

A student doing tests on transition metals records the number 197 in their log book, but can’t recall whether it was the A or Z value.Which does it have to be?

Answer 47

197 must be the atomic mass (A).## FootnoteThere are only ~103 naturally ocuring elements, so the highest possible Z value for a natural element is 103.

Question 48

What is the name for two atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons in their nuclei?

Answer 48

Atoms that differ only in their number of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes have different masses, and can have different radioactive properties, but they are chemically identical.

Question 49

What is the difference between an atom of carbon-12 and an atom of carbon-13?

Answer 49

C-12 and C-13 have different masses and number of neutrons.## FootnoteAn atom of carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus, total mass 12. An atom of carbon-13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons in its nucleus, total mass 13.

Question 50

Define:the nuclear force

Answer 50

The nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.## FootnoteIn a very large atom, or one with an over-abundance of neutrons, the nucleus can become unstable and decay.

Question 51

Which element is more likely to become unstable and decay, ²¹⁰₈₅Astatine or ⁵¹₂₃Vanadium?

Answer 51

Astatine is more likely to have an unstable nucleus than vanadium.## FootnoteAstatine coincidentally is radioactive, so matches the prediction perfectly.The larger the nucleus, or greater number of neutrons, the more nuclear force is necessary to hold it together.

Question 52

Define:an alpha particle and alpha decay

Answer 52

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (without the electrons). Alpha decay is a nuclear decay and occurs when a nucleus emits an alpha particle.## FootnoteThe daughter nucleus of alpha decay will have an atomic number 2 less and mass number 4 less than the parent nucleus.

Question 53

What will the daughter atom be when uranium-238 undergoes a single alpha decay?

Answer 53

²³⁴₉₀Th## FootnoteIn single alpha decay, an alpha particle is emitted. To identify the daughter nucleus: subtract 2 from the parent nucleus’ atomic number, and 4 from its mass. Subtracting 2 protons from uranium (92) shifts it to thorium (90).

Question 54

Under what conditions would alpha decay be an isotope’s preferred form of radioactive decay?

Answer 54

Alpha decay is typical only in large nuclei (atomic number 60 or greater).## FootnoteMany of the most well known radioactive elements, such as radium (88), uranium (92), and plutonium (94), decay primarily via alpha decay.

Question 55

Define:a beta particle and beta decay

Answer 55

A beta particle is an electron, a massless negatively-charged particle.Beta decay is a nuclear decay and occurs when a nucleus emits a beta particle.## FootnoteThe daughter nucleus of beta decay will have an atomic number 1 greater and mass number identical to the parent nucleus. When the electron is ejected, total charge must remain constant, so a neutron is converted to a new proton.

Question 56

What will the daughter atom be when carbon-14 undergoes a single beta decay?

Answer 56

¹⁴₇N## FootnoteIn beta decay, a beta particle (electron) is emitted. To identify the daughter nucleus: add 1 to the parent nucleus’ atomic number, without changing its mass. The element with an atomic number one larger than carbon is nitrogen.

Question 57

Under what conditions is beta decay an isotope’s preferred form of radioactive decay?

Answer 57

Beta decay is typical in smaller nuclei, when the isotope’s mass number is greater than the element’s atomic weight.## FootnoteEx: The carbon-16 isotope, is heavier than carbon’s atomic weight of 12.011, and consequenly decays via beta decay.

Question 58

Define:a positron and positron decay

Answer 58

A positron is an anti-electron, a massless positively-charged particle.Positron decay is a nuclear decay and occurs when a nucleus emits a positron.## FootnoteThe daughter nucleus of positron decay will have an atomic number 1 less and mass number identical to the parent nucleus. When the positron is ejected, total charge must remain constant, so a proton is converted to a new neutron.

Question 59

What will the daughter atom be when carbon-11 undergoes positron decay?

Answer 59

¹¹₅B## FootnoteIn positron decay, a positron is emitted. To identify the daughter nucleus: subtract 1 from the parent nucleus’ atomic number, without changing its mass. The element with an atomic number one less than carbon is boron.

Question 60

Define:electron capture

Answer 60

Electron capture is a nuclear decay and occurs when a nucleus captures one of its own electrons. The electron merges with a proton to form a neutron.## FootnoteThe daughter nucleus of electron capture will have an atomic number 1 less and mass number identical to the parent nucleus.

Question 61

What will the daughter atom be when beryllium-7 decays via electron capture?

Answer 61

⁷₃Li## FootnoteIn electron capture, an electron merges with a proton, forming a neutron. To identify the daughter nucleus: subtract 1 from the parent nucleus’ atomic number, without changing its mass. The element with atomic number one less than beryllium is lithium.

Question 62

Under what conditions would positron emission or electron capture be an isotope’s preferred form of radioactive decay?

Answer 62

Both positron emission and electron capture are typical when the isotope’s mass number is less than the element’s atomic weight, or when there is a superabundance of protons.## FootnoteEx: The carbon-11 isotope, is lighter than carbon’s atomic weight of 12.011, and consequently decays via positron emission.

Question 63

Define:a gamma ray and gamma emission

Answer 63

A gamma ray is a high energy photon, a massless and uncharged particle.Gamma emission is a nuclear decay and occurs when a nucleus emits a gamma ray.## FootnoteThe daughter nucleus of gamma emission has only changed to lower energy, hence will have identical atomic and mass numbers to the parent nucleus.

Question 64

Define:the half-life of a radioactive isotope

Answer 64

A radioactive isotope’s half-life is the time it takes for exactly one-half of the original isotope atoms to undergo radioactive decay.## FootnoteAfter one half-life elapses, exactly one half of the original amount of the parent nuclei will still be present; the remainder will have decayed into the daughter nuclei.

Question 65

What proportion of the original amount of radioactive isotope X will remain in 3 hours, if X has a half-life of 1 hour?

Answer 65

One-eighth of the original amount will remain after 3 hours.## FootnoteFor each half-life that elapses, one half of the remaining isotopes decays. After one hour, 1/2 the original population remains. During the second hour, 1/2 of the remaining half (1/4 more) decays, leaving one quarter of the original population. In the third hour, 1/2 of the remaining quarter (1/8 more) decays, leaving one eighth of the original.

Question 66

How long will it take a 120 g sample of radioactive isotope Z to decay until only 30 g of Z remain, if Z has a half-life of 3 days?

Answer 66

6 days## FootnoteFor each half-life that elapses, one half of the remaining isotopes will decay. After 3 days, 60 g of Z will decay, and 60 g will remain. After 3 more days, half of that 60 g will decay, leaving 30 g.

Question 67

Define:nuclear fission

Answer 67

Nuclear fission is a radioactive process in which a nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei.## FootnoteEx: an atom of ²³⁶U can fission into an atom of ⁹²Kr, an atom of ¹⁴²Ba, and 2 free neutrons.Though this is a classic example, you do not need to memorize any specific fission reactions for the MCAT.

Question 68

Define:nuclear fusion

Answer 68

Nuclear fusion is a radioactive process in which two nuclei combine to form a heavier one.## FootnoteEx: an atom of ²H can fuse with an atom of ³H, forming an atom of ⁴He and a free neutron, along with significant excess energy.Though this is a classic reaction (in the sun), you do not need to memorize any fusion reactions for the MCAT.

Question 69

Define:mass defect of an atom

Answer 69

An atom’s mass defect is the difference between the calculated mass of the individual protons and neutrons in the atom’s nucleus compared to the overall observed mass of the nucleus.## FootnoteThe mass defect is due to some mass being converted to energy to hold the nucleus together. The nucleus will consequently weigh less than the protons and neutrons that make it up.

Question 70

Define:binding energy of a nucleus

Answer 70

The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy needed to cause the nucleus to decompose into separate protons and neutrons.## FootnoteThe binding energy is exactly the same magnitude as the mass defect. The energy released when a nucleus is formed is exactly the same as the energy needed to break it apart.

Question 71

What is the equation relating a nucleus’ mass defect and its binding energy?

Answer 71

E = mc²## FootnoteWhere:E = nucleus’ binding energy m = nucleus’ mass defect c = speed of light, 3x10⁸ m/sSince the value of c² is so large, a very small mass defect accounts for a very large binding energy.

Question 72

The mass of 2 free protons and 2 free neutrons is about 4.032 AMU, but the mass of an alpha particle is about 4.002 AMU. What explains the discrepancy?

Answer 72

The remaining 0.030 AMU is the binding energy of the alpha particle.## FootnoteRemember: the binding energy is the mass converted to energy when the nucleus is formed.Using E = mc², 0.030 AMU corresponds to 28.3 MeV of energy.

Question 73

The binding energy of an alpha particle is 28.3 MeV. How much energy is needed to separate an alpha particle into its consitutent pieces?

Answer 73

28.3 MeV is the energy required to break apart the alpha particle.## FootnoteRemember: the binding energy is the mass converted to energy when the nucleus is formed. That much energy is required to break the nucleus apart.