Atmosphere & Mass movement

Question 1

when do tropical storms occur in the northern hemisphere?

Answer 1

july to october

Question 2

causes of hazardous mass movements

Answer 2

shear stress overcoming shear strength, pore pressure or increased rainfall or sudden thaw creating snow melt result of hazardous activity eg earthquakes they destabilise slopes volcanoes produce snow melt and engender lahard intense storms can also bring about slope instability human activities can also contribute although their influence is more limited deforestation undercutting and overloading can all affect slope stability as off piste skiing

Question 3

when do slab avalanches occur and why?

Answer 3

spring partial melt occurs at depth leading to instability at a well defined failure surface

Question 4

explain the threat of storm surges from tropical storms?

Answer 4

it can lead to extensive and very sudden costal inundation which will swamp many costal defences EG New Orleans where the levees and costal protection was completely overwhelmed by the storm surge resulting from Hurricane Katrina

Question 5

What conditions are needed for tropical storms to form?

Answer 5

Sea temperatures must be 27 degrees, at a depth of 60m Far enough from the equator that the Corilosis force creates sufficent rotation in the rising air mass

Question 6

describe the hazardous effects of a tornado?

Answer 6

destruction of property along a narrow belt extending for a few kilometres.

‘killer tornadoes’ (less than 2% - deaths of 689 in 1925) but loss of life is generally low, say, in comparison with tropical storms.

extreme high winds up to 500km/h (category 5 on Fujita scale) drawn into an ascending vortex and heavy downpours of rain with the possibility of massive hailstorms.

Movable bodies such as cars and lorries can be uplifted and dumped, and the extreme low pressure can cause some buildings to ‘explode’.

There is often widespread crop destruction.

Question 7

what latitudes do tropical storms occur at

Answer 7

10-30 degrees

Question 8

explain the hazardous impacts of tornados?

Answer 8

destruction of property as movable bodies are uplifted and dumped, extreme low pressure can cause some buildings to explode due to pressure difference flooding due to heavy downpours of rain and hailstorms extreme high winds drawn into an ascending vortex causing crop destruction killer tornados (less than 2%) may creates swathed hundreds of metres wide and up to 150km long loss of life is generally low

Question 9

describe and explain the development of tropical storms

Answer 9

Intense evaporation from warm seas with warm air rising and condensing to form towering clouds (cumulonimbus) and heavy rainfall (125mm an hour).

The uplift of air is accentuated by the release of latent heat as a result of condensation.

The rising air also creates intense low pressure with warm air being sucked in which then also rises and so the hurricane develops.

The up flow of warm and humid air continues.

Air that surrounds the low-pressure zone at the centre flows in a spiral at very high speeds, anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere.

The Coriolis force of the earth is needed to develop the spinning motion.

Air is ejected at the top of the eye.

Question 10

why are there continental deserts?

Answer 10

more heat as land heats quicker than sea, is transparent and large of deep less rain as rain comes from the sea eg afghanistan is thousands of miles from sea

Question 11

explain how a tornado develops

Answer 11

Tornadoes are spawned by violent uplift associated with violent thunderstorms, called supercells.

At Tornado Alley in the mid-west USA warm moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico moves north and meets cooler, drier air from the northern Plains and the Rockies.

When these winds collide, a strong front develops which causes a big horizontal cylindrical vortex to form.

he warm air slides beneath the cold air, at different altitudes in a wind-shearing effect, the thunderheads and start to rotate rapidly (reasons not fully understood, thought to be air inversion)

Beneath the clouds violent up draughts caused by convection cause the horizontal cylindrical spiral of air to tilt into a vertical funnel and create intense low pressure

If it continues to grow, it will touch the ground and become a tornado.

Question 12

when do powder avalanches occur?

Answer 12

Any time of the year following a heavy snowfall over a partially frozen snow surface

Question 13

what factors cause a landslide

Answer 13

climate eg permeable rock overlying impermeable faults or joints allowing water buildings increase weight deforestation increases infiliytation removal of the foot slope heavy rainfall overwhelming through flow

Question 14

describe the hazards associated with tropical storms

Answer 14

intense high rainfall up to 125mm recorded usually lasts for 6 hours from the storm centre - results in: extreme flood events, landslides, breaching of levees and slope settlements destroyed - eg hong kong winds of over 250km/hr denote a category five storm on the Safir-Simpson index - results in: structural damage, contribution to the development of storm surges by whipping up waves and driving them on shore storm surges develop from the low pressure, causing a rise in sea levels; wave generation from high winds being driven on shore very hazardous when combined with high tide - results in: costal inundation, especially when low lying (Bangladesh) or on a river estuary (New Orleans) combined with high rain this has a multiplied effect

Question 15

areas most at risk of tropical storms

Answer 15

caribbean bangladesh SE america

Question 16

fact about tornadoes in the USA

Answer 16

80% occur here tornado alley especially Kansas Oklahoma Missouri

Question 17

what is the Coriolis force

Answer 17

force causing the rotation of the Earth

Question 18

describe the nature of avalanches

Answer 18

All avalanches occur on slopes with a gradient of between 26-60 degrees (specifically, human triggered avalanches occur at 38 degrees)

Avalanches tend to have a speed of 60km/h, but this speed can reach 290km/hr, as was seen in the Galtur Avalanche 1999

Avalanches can be 50m high

In the Northern hemisphere, they tend to occur on north facing slopes as the lack of sun inhibits the slope stabilization

They are classified by the European avalanche size table with 1 being unlikely to cause injury, and 4 being an avalanche with the ability to destroy buildings

Single point vs slab avalanches (travel at 60–80 miles/hour and account for most fatalities)

The movement of the snow pack caries: either in an open valley, or powder (airborne), or flows along the ground.

It has three main parts: the starting zone which is the most volatile area of the slope, where unstable snow can fracture from the surrounding snow cover and begin to slide. The avalanche track is the path that the avalanche follows as it goes downhill, and the runout zone is where the snow and debris come to a stop.

Question 19

appearance of tornadoes

Answer 19

small funnel shaped violently rotating vortex e tending down from cumulonimbus clouds vortex in contact with the ground

Question 20

definition of a tropical storm

Answer 20

a generic term that includes hurricanes cyclones and typhoons low pressure weather system up to 600km/hr in diameter with wind speeds of up to 300km/hr and bringing up to 30-50cm of rainfall

Question 21

describe the nature of tornados

Answer 21

intense rotating (anti-clockwise) masses of air funnel shaped swirling cloud

full of debris and dust

Around the funnel of rising air are very strong winds often over 300 kph

intense precipitation with large hail stones

local meteorological hazards (usually less than a km wide) 100-600m the track can extend for 2-4 km

last a few minutes

Distribution: famously occur at Tornado Valley in Mid-West USA as warm moist air from North Mexico collides with cold dry air from the Rockies.

Question 22

explain the threat of intense torrential rainfall from tropical storms?

Answer 22

They destabilise slopes bringing about slopes landslides and mudflows particularly hazardous in LIC where shanty towns are located on unstable slopes

Question 23

conditions for tornado formation

Answer 23

warm air high humidity near ground level fast moving winds about 70 knots about 3k. above ground level travelling in different directions

Question 24

describe tornado alley

Answer 24

Mid west USA Oklahoma Kansas Missouri warm moist air from the north from Canada or the rocky mountains

Question 25

why are he hazardous impacts of tropical storms worse than tornadoes?

Answer 25

power of tropical stones is immense, impact leads to thousands dead and widespread destruction of property death toll of tornadoes rarely reaches hundreds tropical storms affect costal areas that are often densely populated (receiving high winds storm surfers and floods) - lower course of river but tornadoes produce heavy hail storms cyclones have a diameter of 500-800kn whilst tornadoes rarely exceed 10km in path and may only periodically touch the surface BUT wind speed is higher for tornadoes as can reach 500km/hr, double that of tornadoes pressure at the heart of tornadoes is 20% below normal ambient pressure

Question 26

how fast do slab avalanches travel?

Answer 26

60-80 miles an hour

Question 27

how can high rainfall be protected against?

Answer 27

leads to flooding and landslides flood control measures can be put in place along rivers deforestation if slopes floodplain management can be developed to protect critical assets; building on slopes can be controlled or prevented Protective river embankments, levees and dukes should be regularly inspected for breaches and opportunities taken to plant mangroves to reduce braking wave energy Vegetation cover can be improved This helps to reduce the impact of erosion and landslides and facilities the absorption of rainfall to reduce flooding

Question 28

list of human activities on slopes

Answer 28

deforestation building on or on top of cutting base of slopes mining or quarrying filling large resovirs weapons testing shear stress strength balance affected

Question 29

What is a tornado?

Answer 29

A violent destructive weather system with powerful rotating winds up to 300km/h Intense low pressure systems Their development depends on instability in the atmosphere convergence and strong updrafts in the air

Question 30

describe the distribution of tornados?

Answer 30

80% major tornadoes occur in the USA generally at their most hazardous tornadoes occur widely throughout the world from australia to birmingham

Question 31

what latitudes do tropical storms occur at

Answer 31

10-30 degrees

Question 32

definition of a tornado

Answer 32

S violent destructive weather system Powerful rotating winds up to 300km/he Tornadoes are intense low pressure systems and their development depends on instability in the atmosphere convergence and strong updrafts in the air

Question 33

when do tropical storms occur in the southern hemisphere?

Answer 33

January to April

Question 34

how does a tropical storm develop

Answer 34

over warm ocean area higher than 26 degrees more than 50m deep 500km both and south of equator 5 degrees in late summer when sea temperatures are at their maximum so moisture and energy enters the system via evaporation where the trade winds converge (NE and SW -NH) developing low pressure the undistrubed upper atmosphere allows the development of massive uplift of cold air is forced to rise rapidly forming cumulonimbus clouds no wind shearing the coriolis forces helps generate strong spinning winds, around the low pressure at the centre of the storm (eye)

Question 35

describe the method of draining slopes to reduce mass movement hazards

Answer 35

Drainage pipes - hard engineering Reduce build up of water decreasing water pressure in the soil preventing oversaturation Effective, low cost covering a large volume of ground HOWEVER requires regular maintenance or it’ll become ineffective

Question 36

explain how cold ocean currents cause deserts

Answer 36

less evaporation any air blown on shore is drier and cooler off coast of peru or chile cold peruvian current

Question 37

what are the most damaging type of tropical storms?

Answer 37

Category 5 on the Saffir Simpson Scale Wind speeds in excess of 250km per hour Storm surge of more than 5.5m This can lead to extensive damage to property and cause deaths and injuries from flying objects

Question 38

causes of instability in slope?

Answer 38

inherent: weaknesses in the rock structure, composition of soil caused by heavy rain or snow melt caused by tectonic or seismic activity human triggers: changes to slope angle and form decrease in toe support increased load on the head interference with drainage

Question 39

explain rain shadow effect?

Answer 39

leeward sides of mountain are driver this is because the prevailing winds from the sea move towards the mountain, clouds pass over mountain and the flat land adjacent had descending dry air eg south america

Question 40

methods of limiting the hazardous effects of avalanches

Answer 40

reinforcing buildings snow fences tree planting artificially triggering avalanches preventing access to dangerous slopes

Question 41

ineffective response of a tornado

Answer 41

1996 Bangladesh tornado government underestimated disaster Red Cross not permitted with valuable medical supplies Despite widespread injury 1,000 injured in a 200 bed hospital in Tangail

Question 42

how can high winds be protected against?

Answer 42

High winds Cyclone or hurricane shelters can be constructed Marked evacuation routes established Along with earnings The removal securing of vulnerable structures

Question 43

definition of a tsunami

Answer 43

a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, generally an ocean (can be a large lake)

Question 44

how can storm surges be protected against?

Answer 44

Sea walls can also be constructed but these are not much defence against category 5 hurricanes, warnings given to costa moorings the evacuation of coastal areas

Question 45

what is an avalanche

Answer 45

a type of mass movement involving the movement of snow and ice downslope under the influence of gravity

Question 46

reducing the hazard of mass movements

Answer 46

Afforestation Prediction Draining slopes Regarding slopes

Question 47

how large can the central eye be in a tropical storm

Answer 47

10-50km

Question 48

tropical storms

Answer 48

low pressure systems up to 600kn in diameter with wind speeds of up to 300km/hr typically 160km/h rostov around a calmer core eye bringing up to 30-50cm of rainfall

Question 49

reducing vulnerability of structures and infrastructure against tropical storms

Answer 49

new buildings should be designed to be wind and water resistant - building codes communication and utility lines located away from coastal areas and installed underground improvement of building sites; raising ground levels to protect against flood and storm surges improved vegetation cover; helps to reduce the impact of soil erosion and landslides river embankments levees regularly inspected for breaches

concrete breakwaters and floodgates protecting ports and costal areas

Question 50

Case study of mass movement prediction

Answer 50

MUDSLIDES OF SIERRA LEONE AUGUST 2017

Sierra Leone Meterological Office did not issue warnings due to a lack of funding/equipment : GNI of country is $1560

Sierra Leone’s Office of National security advised evacuation when satelitte images of the hillside adjacent to the area of the inital slide showed another threat

Question 51

how did the the human geography of the area affect the mudslide in Sierra Leone

Answer 51

Deforestation on slopes reduced soil stability and increased soil erosion

Unregulated construction; moratorium ignored and the drainage system regularly blocked

Question 52

example of a mudflow caused by heavy rain

Answer 52

LONG TERM

unusually wet rainy season - 104mm of rainfall since July 1st - triple the average, leaving the ground saturated, making it heavy, and eventually resulting in a mudflow that killed 1,000 people.

SHORT TERM

three days of unusually heavy rainfall prior to the event

Question 53

example of land use planning to reduce the hazardous impact of mass movements

Answer 53

High risk areas that are therefore without human activity, completely mitigate the hazard posed by mudflows.

resettlement programs: the Indian Institute for Human Settlements seeks to reduce the hazard of mass movements in India via resettlement.

SOFT ENGINEERING

Question 54

what is the difficulty with predicting mass movements

Answer 54

the triggers themselves are difficult to predict

e.g. earthquakes and possibly volcanoes

Question 55

explain methods of reducing the gradient of a slope in order to prevent mass movement

Answer 55

This could be done by grading, which involves shaping of the rock slope into a more stable configuration, in flattening or leaving ‘benches’ in the slope face.

On the other hand, the slope can be excavated or filled to produce a gentler slope.

However, this is ineffective in the case of slopes that are not easy to reach, as the mechanical means of achieving slope grading or excavation, requires machinery

HARD ENGINEERING

Question 56

explain how afforestation reduces the hazardous impacts of mudflows

Answer 56

Vegetation reduces the risk of mudflows by removing water through transpiration, the mechanical reinforcement of roots and enhancing soil cohesion increasing shear strength

e.g. in Malaysia deforestation plays a major role in mass movement cause so in Pahang, the plant ubi kayu, a species of fast growing tree was planted - after 6 months 75% had sprouted and taken root. Landslides have not occured on these bioengineered plots since vs not managed slopes that have seen undercutting of slope face.

This measure is effective and low cost, only $3000 and can be locally constructed, minimal maintenance, attractive as soft engineering

can have adverse effects such as reducing bio-diversity and taking up space (which in urban areas, with high population density, is a pertinent issue).

Question 57

explain how mass movement triggers be predicted

Answer 57

Hydrological triggers: prolonged and heavy rainfall are the easiest to forecast

but it is difficult to know which slopes are likely to be affected or exactly when it will occur (however some areas are more suceptible e.g. clay areas, steep slopes)

Monitoring is also possible with instruments used to measure ground deformation, the expansion of fissures and groundwater pressure

the United States Geological Survey has published a series of warning signs that can be observed shortly before a mass movement event:

leaning telegraph poles, new cracks or buldges in the ground (volcano) and springs in the ground that had not previously been wet

Question 58

explain how perception of risk is flawed for mass movements

Answer 58

Italy is more concerned with technological risk e.g. car accidents than antural risks

Of the natural risks they are most concerned about earthquakes then floods and volcanic eruptions

POR is also deeply influenced by recent landslide events

e.g. the people of Calabria percieve landslide risk as very high, but the hazard to life and property as moderate as they have never had a fatal mass movement event

Question 59

how can response be hampered in mudflows

Answer 59

continued rainfall

e. g. Sierra Leone (2017)
e. g. Mount Ranier, Washington sttae

remote areas make resuce/evacuation difficult

visitors are unfamiliar to the area/respond slowly

soft mud that is difficult to move

e.g. Nevado Del Ruiz (1985) up to 4.5 m deep

several highways connecting Amero were destroyed by lahars so it took 12 hours for the first survivors to be rescued

Question 60

sustainable managment/prediction of lahar mass movements

Answer 60

mount ranier stratovolcano in washington state

1995 US geological survey

automated system detects lahars using a network of small sensors, embedded underground to measure ground vibrations

computer base stations analyze signals from field stations

upon detection computer sends signal to 24 hour emergency monitoring and notification centres; people are notified via channels of communication e.g. tv, sirens, radio

in remote areas people are encouraged to be aware of natural signs:

ground rubling

roaring sounds similar to jet

10,000 people have between 40 mins and 3 hours to get to saftey

Question 61

why does sea water have to be 50 degrees for a tropical storm to occur

Answer 61

waters of this temperature cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms

Question 62

how was Galtur, a powder avalanche, caused?

Answer 62

4m of snowfall resulting from a combination of 3 atlantic weather systems - ended up being 170,000 tons

freeze thaw conditions created a weak layer on top of the eisting snow pack

more snow deposited on top

Question 63

describe the Galtur avalanche

Answer 63

290km per hour

50m high

powder avalanche

Question 64

why was the impact so high for the Galtur avalanche

Answer 64

31 deaths mostly tourists, overturned cars, powder snow killed people by asphyxiation

galtur was marked as green in the hazard map - avalanche safe, with no building reinforcements required

1 in 150 year event wouldnt even reach the village

Question 65

example of avalanche forecasting

Answer 65

hazard mapping in all populated reigons of alps

red: highly vulnerable no development permitted
yellow: moderate developed should be reinforced
green: avalanche safe, no reinforcement required

reason why impact was so high - Galtur was green with a 1 in 150 chance of an avalanche

no monitoring in place (took 60 seconds to hit anyway)

Question 66

difference in size: tropical storm vs tornado

Answer 66

Tropical storms have a diameter of some 500–800 km

whereas the destructive path of tornadoes rarely exceed 10 km and may only periodically touch surface

tornados leave a footprint of some 50 metres wide and a track of 1–2 km

wheras ropical storms may also travel for hundreds of km

tropical storms can lasting days, destroying islands and coastal areas – large death toll, widespread property damage.

By contrast, tornados last for a few minutes to a couple of hours, causing limited damage – injury or very rare deaths ‘killed tornados’

Question 67

describe the nature of mudflows

Answer 67

Mudslides involve the downslope movement of debris with a significant liquid content.

They contain at least 50% clay or slit and 30% water

Thus, they can travel on lower slope angles than other mass movements 25-45 degrees e.g. debris flows or rock falls

It has two main parts: a main scarp – the area of incidence and a toe – the last affected area

They have been known to be as deep as 30m

They can flow as fast as tens of m per second, carrying debris and smothering villages. For example, the Sierra Leone mudslides of 2017, the saturated mud flow carried mud, large boulders, tree trunks, and other material.

Question 68

when are avalanches most common

Answer 68

24 hours after a snow storm dumps 30cm of fresh snow

Question 69

what is wind shear

Answer 69

wind moving fast at different altitudes

Question 70

describe tornados having greater winds than tropical storms

Answer 70

the wind speed of tornadoes can reach 500 km/h about double that of the most powerful cyclones and the pressure at the heart of a tornado can be 20% below normal ambient pressure.

Question 71

example of landslides following a tropical storm

Answer 71

Hurricane Mitch 1988

rain fillled the creater of the dormant Casita volcano in Nicaragua

caused a decrease in shear strength

lead to four villages inundated, everything buried in 6m of mud

area of 16 by 8 km

Question 72

explain the global distribution of tropical storms

Answer 72

Tropical storms develop in a narrow band between 5° and 15° N and S of the equator except in the South Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans.

They do not originate on the equator because of a lack of Coriolis force.

They develop in areas where sea temperatures exceed 26 °C and are of sufficient depth to fuel tropical storms which develop from atmospheric disturbance at the meeting of warm and cooler air masses.

All tropical storms develop fully where there is no wind shearing.

They do not develop on the western coasts of Africa and South America because of the cold offshore currents.

Tropical storms track westwards driven by the westerly flowing air streams from the convergence of the NE and SE trades and they veer poleward before dying out.

Question 73

contrast the prediction of tornados and of tropical storms

Answer 73

Tropical storms are much easier to predict than tornados.

The strength of wind in a tornado means that conducting investigations into them highly problematic.

Scientists can predict tornados using ground and air based radar systems, analysing storm clouds; however, these systems only give warnings a few minutes in advance.

By contrast tropical storms can always be seen approaching as they are large and slow moving, meaning evacuation orders can be enabled 3-5 days in advance.

For example, in 1998 100,000 people were evacuated from Honduras in advance of Hurricane Mitch. However, Cyclone Nargis was predicted but the Burmese government lacked sufficient infrastructure to do anything about it.

Also, the precise track of hurricanes is not always possible to predict, nor is the unexpected strengthening and weakening of the storm as It passes over sea areas of different temperatures.

Question 74

why is prediction of tropical storms problematic

Answer 74

difficult in terms of the trajectory (within 80km)

not possible to predict the intensity at all;

strength and weakening as storms pass over hot/cold water

this is attributed to the complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development

Question 75

prediction: general likelihood of TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 75

Atlantic/Caribbean satellite imagery and computer modelling

predict in April how many hurricanes are expected to make landfall

(based on past occurrences and factors e.g. climate – as a %).

Question 76

prediction: specific forecasting of a TROPICAL STORM

Answer 76

achieved via effective, continuous monitoring: information avalible every 6 hours TCWC

Once a hurricane has been formed, its path can be predicted 3-5 days in advance, giving people time to evacuate or hurricane-proof their property.

This enables small-scale preparedness to take place, the city itself can’t be completely prepared for landfall.

For example, hurricane Mitch was predicted 5 days prior, allowing thousands of citizens to be evacuate onto the bay islands.

The Indian Metrological agency predicted Cyclone Nargis, but Burmese government did nothing

Question 77

preperation: general of TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 77

Local government building flood barriers in the case of storm surges, but these are often very expensive and not always effective.

For example, the Fox Point Hurricane Barrier is a 3,000-foot long tidal flood barrier spanning the Providence River in Rhode Island.

Alternatively, mangroves can be planted to reduce vulnerability to storm surges by slowing the flow of water.

Additionally, communication and utility lines can be located away from areas of water, or located underground.

Extreme winds mitigated in an elevated structure on an open foundation, reduces the risk of damage from flooding and storm-driven water

In New Orleans area V must have flood insurance to financially protect people from the hazardous impacts of tropical storms

Question 78

preperation: specific event of TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 78

evacuation/fleeing – often late notice as governments are reluctant to enable the release of funds/creation of panic in order to coordinate an evacuation, if the storm will disperse

Question 79

why is response so important to reduce the hazardous impacts of the tropical storms

Answer 79

the intensity of tropical storms can never be predicted, so government predictions, advise and preperation methods are often insufficent - response is the best way of dealing with specific hazardous impacts on an appropriate scale

but, it is necessary for a stable political climate and appropriate aid distribution methods - something that even HIC countries struggle with: after Hurricane Katrina saw US gov. criticised for inadequate planning

Question 80

hazard perception: TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 80

According to the American Meteorological Society (2014), the majority of people misunderstood that the greatest threat was wind (the damage of this was also underestimate), rather than water.

Question 81

immediate response for TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 81

digging through the rubble to rescue people; sending out search and rescue teams

immediately after Hurricane Mitch 1998 armed guards were sent to coordiante rescues and guard businesses that could be looted, 200 people arrested in Honduras

Question 82

short term response for TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 82

after hurricane mitch US offered $70 million, Roman Catholic church helped to distribute aid across the country.

HOWEVER short term response can be hampered by political conditions:

Cyclone Nargis in Burma, 2008, the isolationist government only permitted certain flights and denied visa requests

Aid was only distributed 2 weeks after the event, making food rations unsuitable

Question 83

long term response of TROPICAL STORMS

Answer 83

reform of policy towards building design, ensuring homes can withstand storm events;

after hurricane mitch 1998

homes were rebuilt and crops replanted over the years

the reconstruction efforts acted to lower unemployment rates

Question 84

prediction: general likelihood of tornados

Answer 84

. FEMA issue hazard maps yearly in accordance with recent events, weather conditions etc.

This is a choropleth map which parallels the Fujita scale (categorising tornados based on damage).

Iowa, Kansas and Missouri.

Citizens of these areas are advised to build portions of the buildings designed for shelter.

Question 85

prediction: specific forecasting of TORNADOS

Answer 85

the strength of wind in a tornado means that conducting investigations into them highly problematic; tornado formation not properly understood - forecasting gives few minutes of warnings

Scientists can monitor tornados using air based radar systems (5 satellites orbiting 22,000m above earth taking snapshots of cloud formation), analysing storm clouds

Also short term, storm spotters report to the national weather service, trained locally on the demands of the area.

Question 86

general preperation: TORNADOS

Answer 86

government websites with advice such as FEMA

Schools/hospitals/malls identify small windowless rooms below ground

People in mobile homes or offices advised to go to a secure pre-identified location

If evacuation from a building is impossible, then the advice is to take cover under a sturdy table and cover themselves

The US has warning sirens/tornado drills

Question 87

specific event preperation: TORNADOS

Answer 87

evacuation/fleeing; putting relevant action plans into action

Apps such as the American Red Cross notify mobile warnings, allowing people to indicate they are safe through social media.

Question 88

hazard perception: TORNADOS

Answer 88

Simple and inexpensive enhancements to building codes could lead to 30% less damage in Oklahoma

opposed by conservative local government with false hazard perception, sceptical about climate change etc.

Question 89

short term response: TORNADOS

Answer 89

During the 2013 Mississippi Tornado the response was largely internal.

Schools were reopened 4 days later, buses borrowed from neighbouring school districts. 13,000 power outages quickly fixed

The red cross and salvation army provided shelter.

Following the 1996 Bangladesh tornado, the government massively underestimated the disaster, meaning supplies were not distributed

A Government 200-bed hospital in Tangail was overwhelmed with more than 1,000 injured; whilst the Red Cross was not permitted into the country with valuable medical supplies.

Question 90

long term response: TORNADOS

Answer 90

improved hazard perception

updated hazard mapping

reform to building codes

Question 91

preperation: specific hard engineering for MUDSLIDES

Answer 91

reducing pressure on the slope,

controlling slope face processes, e.g. using sheet piles, draining the slope,

reducing slope foot processes, e.g. gabions,

changing the angle of the slope so it is nearer the stability angle

In Hong Kong, a system of ‘mulching’ has been employed, where a protective cover is provided, making it possible for vegetation to grow on the slope, binding the slope surface and securing it in place.

Also, reinforced fibre soil systems mixing polyester fibre in sandy soils are capable of resisting tension.

Question 92

describe the nature of tropical storms

Answer 92

Size: diameter of some 500–800 km; travel for hundreds of km

Rotation: anticlockwise in accordance with the Coriolis force

wind speeds: highest (category 5 on the saffir-simpson index – above or at 157mph, however some reach speeds of up to 200mph). Hurricane Irma 2017.

They move from east to west to impact largely on eastern coastal areas

distribution: they start within 8° north and south of the Equator (outside the immediate equatorial area) where sea surface temperatures reach 27°C

gain or lose strength in accordance with sea temperature.

Areas most at risk are the Caribbean, South East USA and the low lying coasts of Bangladesh. In the northern hemisphere, they occur July – October when sea temperatures are at their highest.

rainfall amounts: on average 406mm but can be up to 1,540mm (hurricane harvey 2017)

lasts for 6 hours from the storm centre

Question 93

describe the hazardous impacts of tropical storms

Answer 93

Vast quantities of rain (up to 125 mm in one hour have been recorded) which usually last for six hours each side of the storm centre.

The resultant hazards are extreme flood events and land/mud slides so that the impact can be massive where river levees are breached and slope settlements are destroyed (plenty of examples; Hong Kong, Rio).

Winds of over 250 km/hr denote a category five storm on the Safir-Simpson index.

The impact is structural damage and a contribution to the development of storm surges by whipping up waves and driving them on shore.

Storm surges develop minimally from the low pressure causing a rise in sea level and mainly by the wave generation from high winds being driven on shore. They will be especially hazardous when combined with a period of high tide.

The impact is coastal inundation of low lying coastal areas (Bangladesh) and river estuaries (New Orleans). Combined with river floods from high rainfall has a multiplied effect.

Question 94

prediction: general likelihood of MUDSLIDES

Answer 94

hazrd mapping based on onger term on geology and hydrology of an area, but shorter term will depend on recent weather and changes to environment, such as cut and fill new road through mountains, excavations at foot of slopes for new buildings, etc.

FEMA produce a hazard map for California, which encompasses the volume of the possible mudsides and the relative hazard of a mudslide – mountainous areas are red.

With an 80-100% chance of mudslides within the year.

Question 95

problems with specific warnings of mudslides

Answer 95

Even if there is sufficient monitoring, a warning is not always issued.

For example, prior to the Sierra Leone mudslides of August 2017, the Meteorological office did not issue a warning due to lack of funding and infrastructure.

However, at a later stage after the first mudslide had occurred, an evacuation was enabled.

Question 96

general preperation for MUDSLIDES

Answer 96

FEMA.

Sign up for your community’s warning system, such as the Emergency Alert System

. Know your community’s landslide evacuation plans; Practice driving evacuation routes and identify shelter locations.

Gather supplies in case you have to leave immediately or if services are cut off. Keep in mind each person’s specific needs, including medication.

Plant ground cover and build walls to direct the flow around buildings.

Question 97

Why is response the most effective way of dealing with mudslides

Answer 97

Only once an event has happened the specific needs of the affected area can be addressed

planning and preparation prior to an event are inevitably much more generalized and can’t necessarily anticipate the scale or intensity of the hazard

Question 98

short term response to MUDSLIDE

Answer 98

Red Cross and government donated 15 vehicles to isolated areas.

UN sent forensic officers and specialized rescue units, dogs. WTP provided rations for 7,500 people.

Workers in regent constructed 4x 10,0000L water harvesting systems as there was a fear cholera would break out. The UK provided storage tanks, purification tablets and hygiene advice.

Question 99

long term response to MUDSLIDE

Answer 99

government under international and domestic pressure to reform building policy to protect the poor who are inevitably hurt by their ability to only afford housing on unstable and marginal land

The IFRC approved 4.6 million Swiss Franks to be distributed through Sierra Leone agencies over 10 months following the disaster – helping to rebuild and provide temporary accommodation.

Question 100

explain why mudslides occur

Answer 100

Tend to occur due to heavy rainfall, oversaturating the slope, increasing the weight of the soil.

Shear stress becomes greater than shear strength and a mudslide occurs.

For example the 2017 Sierra Leone mudslides were triggered by an unusually rainy season (triple the regions seasonal average for July).

This high level of rain was not appropriately handled in the infrastructure of the area, with blocked drains preventing infiltration.

This was exacerbated by the deforestation on the slope in order to meet the growing demand for homes (increased population pressure). Deforestation reduces the anchoring effect of vegetation, increasing susceptibility to soil erosion.

These buildings additionally increased the weight on the slope, increasing shear stress and so the vulnerability to a trigger.

ALSO:

Geology (rock types and structures) e.g. permeable strata overlying impermeable, faults or joints allowing ingress of water.

Removal of the foot slope, i.e. allow a stable slope to develop; undermining the cliff

Question 101

describe the hazardous effects of avalanches

Answer 101

Wet snow avalanches are the most powerful and generate the most hazards; They occur in spring with partial snow melt.

Powder avalanches can cause asphyxiation as occurred following the Galtur avalanches (31 deaths). Powerful shockwaves precede it. The cold weather associated with heavy snowfall can create additional suffering - suffer hypothermia and frost-bite before help arrives. If triggered by earthquakes they are the most hazardous – as a secondary impact.

Animals caught off-guard may be swept to their deaths; hoofed mammals such as mountain sheep are particularly vulnerable.

Blockages of roads, mountain passes and streams and damage to electric and communication lines. Blockage of streams and later release of the impounded water create flash floods with disastrous effects. Most hazardous in the location of settlements.

Question 102

explain the formation of slab avalanches

Answer 102

Snow avalanches occur mostly on slopes between 25 and 40 degrees

Slab avalanches tend to occur in spring when partial melt occurs at depth, due to a sudden rise in temperature.

This causes water to percolate through the snowpack, leading to instability (reduction in shear stress) at a well-defined failure surface.

A plane of weakness emerges in the upper layers of snow. Because of this weakness, human activity can then trigger an avalanche.

For example, the vibrations from the movement of a snowmobile or earth tremors due to movement in the earth’s crust. Snowmobiling is the leading cause of avalanche fatalities in Idaho.

Mass overcomes friction and a resultant avalanche occurs.

Question 103

explain the formation of powder avalanches

Answer 103

Powder avalanches can occur at any time following a heavy snowfall over a partially frozen snow surface (however, tend to occur in winter seasons – Northern Hemisphere November-Februrary, Southern Hemisphere June-August).

Avalanches are most common after a storm that deposits 30cm of fresh snow. the Galtur avalanche 1999 was triggered by 4m of snow from 3 different weather systems.

This most often occurs on a smooth surface e.g. after rain – without the cohesion with the snow layer underneath, it cant settle. Freeze thaw conditions created a weak layer on top of the existing snow pack that prompted destabilisation

This then reaches a critical point where mass is overcome by friction and an avalanches results.