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LSAT prep > Assumption Family > Flashcards

Assumption Family Flashcards

1
Q

Every assumption family contains

A

A conclusion - the author’s main point - an assertion, evaluation, or recommendation
Evidence - facts and information the author presents in support of the conclusion
An assumption - the unstated premise that logically connects the evidence to the conclusion

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2
Q

mismatched concepts arguments

A

The author moves from a discussion of particular terms and concepts in the evidence to a conclusion that introduces a new seemingly unrelated term or concept

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3
Q

overlooked possibilities argument

A

The author uses relevant evidence to jump to a conclusion that is too extreme, without considering potential objections or alternatives to that conclusion

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4
Q

How can you tell an argument contains mismatched concepts?

A

The terms or concepts in the evidence appear unrelated to the conclusion.
A new term or concept - not related to the evidence - appears in the conclusion

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5
Q

Most commonly assumed relationships between mismatched concepts

A

the terms or concepts are alike or equivalent
The terms or concepts are mutually exclusive
One term or concept is needed for the other
One term or concept represent another

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6
Q

Formal logic in mismatched concepts

A

Most assumption family questions do not have conditional statements at all
The most important skill is developing mismatched concepts arguments is the ability to recognize the gap between evidence and conclusion and then connect the mismatched terms of concepts

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7
Q

When tackling an argument that has overlooked possibilities

A
  1. Focus on the conclusion
  2. Determine the possible objections to that conclusion
  3. Understand the assumption in negative terms: the author assumes that the possible objections are not present or did not happen
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8
Q

Identifying overlooked possibilities:

A
  1. Terms in the evidence are related to the conclusion
  2. Conclusion reached is too strong or extreme based on the evidence.
  3. The author has failed to consider possible objections to the conclusions
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9
Q

Overlooked possibilities are best thought of as negative assumptions - why?

A
  • they are about all of the things that the author did not consider or did not mention considering or ruling out as possibilities
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10
Q

Common patterns and relationships in arguments with overlooked possibilities

A

No other explanation, reason, or outcome - Conclusion that posits only one explanation or reason for something or only one likely outcome

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11
Q

Necessity versus sufficiency: assuming that what is sufficient is actually necessary

A

Occasionally, though, an author will commit a formal logic error in an overlooked possibilities argument.
This happens when an argument either confuses sufficient and necessary terms or incorrectly negates the terms. The result of both of these errors is that the author overlooks other potential causes for a given event

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12
Q

Three possible objections to any casual argument

A
  1. There is an alternate cause.
  2. The causation is reversed
  3. The correlation is purely coincidental
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13
Q

types of overlooked possibilities

A

Fails to consider other explanations, reasons, or outcomes based on the evidence
Confuses sufficient and necessary terms
Does not consider potential advantages or disadvantages when making a recommendation
Assumes that something will occur just because it could occur
Author arrives at a claim of causation based on evidence that is only correlated
Prediction is based on an assumption that circumstances will or will not change

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14
Q

Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
what type of assumption are you looking for?

A

necessary - the one that is required for the conclusion to follow

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15
Q

Sufficient assumption questions

A

Find an assumption that would be sufficient to establish the conclusion from the evidence (when added to the evidence, the assumption will guarantee that the conclusion is true)

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16
Q

these words indicate what type of question
“if assumed”, “conclusion follows logically”, “or allows the conclusion to be drawn”

A

sufficient assumption

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17
Q

these words indicate what type of question “needs, requires, depends”

A

necessary assumption

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18
Q

sufficient question strategy

A

Goal is to find the mismatched terms between the evidence and the conclusion, connect those terms, and eliminate any answer choices that bring in outside information
Recognize these questions by the phrasing “if assumed” or “conclusion follows logically”
The correct answer, when combined with the evidence, will guarantee the conclusion
Mismatched concept arguments with formal logic dominates sufficient assumption questions

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19
Q

sufficient assumption questions use overlooked possibilities, mismatched concepts, or both?

A

mismatched concepts

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20
Q

how are necessary assumption questions different than sufficient assumption questions?

A

Different than sufficient assumption questions in that they ask for an assumption that is necessary for the argument’s conclusion to make sense

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21
Q

Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires in order for its conclusion to be properly drawn?
sufficient or necessary

A

necessary

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22
Q

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the argument’s conclusion to be properly drawn?
sufficient or necessary?

A

sufficient

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23
Q

necessary assumption questions use overlooked possibilities, mismatched concepts, or both?

A

both

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24
Q

strategy for necessary assumption questions

A

Recognize these questions by the phrasing “an assumption required by the argument” or “the argument depends on the assumption that”
The correct answer does not have to be sufficient for the conclusion to be drawn, just necessary
Both mismatched concepts and overlooked possibilities arguments will be tested
Use the denial test to distinguish the correct answer

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25
Q

overlooked possibility in necessary assumption questions

A

your approach will change slightly. Seek an answer choice that removes at least one possible objection to the author’s conclusion

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26
Q

Flaw questions

A

Asked to determine the error in the author’s reasoning

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27
Q

Stem: “point out a flaw, identify the error in reasoning, vulnerable to criticism”

A

flaw questions

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28
Q

Flaw questions are dominated by these common argument types

A

Overlooked possibilities: failure to consider alternative explanations
Overlooked possibilities: a conclusion of causation based on evidence of correlation
Overlooked possibilities: confusing necessary and sufficient terms
Mismatched concepts: including alike/equivalent, mutually exclusive, and representation

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29
Q

Mismatched concepts - equivocation

A

Equivocation - using the same word or phrase twice in an argument but with two different meanings
almost never shows up as a correct answer

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30
Q

Mismatched concepts - parts to whole

A

Very similar to representation argument
Argument looks at one piece of something and uses that to make a conclusion about the entirety of that thing OR author looks at many pieces individually and then makes a deduction regarding the pieces together

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31
Q

Circular reasoning

A

Argument in which the author uses equivalent statements for both the evidence and conclusion
Almost never shows up as a correct answer

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32
Q

Evidence contradicts conclusion

A

Ex: book did not sell well; nearly all copies printed were returned to the publisher. It follows that the publisher should print as many copies as possible.
Common incorrect answer

33
Q

extremely rare flaw arguments

A

Conflating numerical values with percentage values
Using evidence of belief to draw a conclusion of fact
Attacking a person making the argument instead of the argument itself
Stating the absence of evidence is evidence of absence
Making an inappropriate appeal to authority
Failing to address the other speaker’s point

34
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Overlooks the possibility that there are some red cars that do not take unleaded gas

A

Overlooked possibilities

35
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Two events that merely occur together are taken as though one is the cause of the other

A

Flaw of confusing correlation for causation

36
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Bases a general claim on a few instances

A

Representation

37
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Treats as similar two cases that may be different in a fundamental way

A

Mismatched concepts - alike/equivalent

38
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Mistakes something that is necessary to bring about a situation for something that merely can bring about that situation

A

Overlooked possibilities - necessary vs sufficient

39
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Allows a key term to shift in meaning during the course of an argument

A

Equivocation

40
Q

Look at answer choices and see the flawed argument they are describing
Presupposes what it seeks to establish

A

Circular reasoning

41
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices - Overlooks the possibility that
Ignores the possibility that
Fails to consider
Assumes only one possibility when more existed

A

Overlooked possibilities

42
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices -
Mistakes a correlation for causation
Presumes that because one event was followed by another, the first event caused the second
Ignores the possibility that two things that occur together may be only coincidentally related

A

causation

43
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices -
Confuses a result with a condition that is required to bring about that result
Mistakes something that is necessary for a particular outcomes for something that is merely sufficient for that outcome
Ignore the possibility that a particular outcome may be sufficient but not necessary for another

A

necessary vs sufficient

44
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices - Facts that are not directly related to the case are used to support a conclusion about it
Draws an analogy between two things that are not alike enough in the ways they would need to be in order for the conclusion to be properly drawn

A

mismatched concepts

45
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices -
Draws a general conclusion from a few isolated instances
Generalizes from an unrepresentative sample
Treats the children living in County X as though they were representative of all children living in State Y

A

representation

46
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices -Relies on an ambiguity in the term plant
Allows a key phrase to shift in meaning from one use to the next
Fails to provide a sufficient definition of a key term

A

equivocation

47
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices -
The conclusion is no more than a restatement of the evidence used to support it
Restates its conclusion without providing sufficient justification for accepting it
Presupposes the truth of what it seeks to establish

A

circular reasoning

48
Q

Common wording of flaw types in answer choices - The evidence undermines the conclusion
Some of the evidence is inconsistent with other evidence presented
Draws a recommendation that is inconsistent with the evidence given to support it

A

evidence contradicts the conclusion

49
Q

Weaken questions

A

Tests ability to evaluate an argument and asks you to identify a piece of information that, if true, would weaken the author’s argument
Does not mean you have to conclusively disprove the conclusion. Need to find a fact that makes the author’s conclusion less likely to be true based on evidence.

50
Q

Key words indicating this type of question - weakens, calls into question, undermines

A

weaken questions

51
Q

difference between weaken and flaw

A

Flaw - asked to describe the argument’s error in reasoning
Weaken - testmaker wants you to identify a new piece of information, that if true, will undermine the author’s assumption and thus weaken the conclusion

52
Q

weaken questions are usually overlooked possibilities or mismatched concepts

A

overlooked possbilities

53
Q

strengthen questions

A

Identify a piece of information that, if true, would strengthen the argument
Does not mean prove or confirm the conclusion

54
Q

approach for strengthen questions

A

Mismatched concepts - look for answer choice that affirms the relationship the author assumes exists between mismatched terms
Overlooked possibilities- seek answer choice that removes a potential objection that the author is overlooking
In both - answer that provides info that directly strengthens the author’s conclusion

55
Q

Weaken AND strengthen except questions

A

The correct answer does not need to strengthen or weaken an argument. The correct answer has no impact on the argument.

56
Q

Evaluate questions

A

Break into evidence and conclusion, determine assumption and use that information to identify an answer choice that will help you evaluate an argument
Answers are not straightforward strengtheners or weakeners, typically phrased as questions whose answers may or may not help you evaluate the validity of an argument
Select an answer choice that allows you to say that the argument is strong or weak

57
Q

what is a principle

A

law-like general rule that can be applied not only to the particular situation in an argument, but also to other comparable situations

58
Q

Principle, proposition, policy, most likely conforms to, best illistrates, all indicate a ? question

A

principle

59
Q
  1. Identify the principle
  2. Apply the principle
  3. parallel principle
A
  1. -asks to identify an applicable, more generalized principle in the answer choice
  2. will present a general principle in the stimulus then ask you to identify a more specific, non-conflicting situation in the correct answer choice
  3. combine the actions in identify and apply the principle questions. First identify the principle in the situation and then apply that general principle to a new specific situation located in one of the answer choices
60
Q

parallel flaw strategy

A

Same approach as flaw questions - identify the author’s conclusion and evidence, and determine why her assumption is flawed.
Correct answer will have flawed in precisely the same way
Causation vs correlation, necessity vs sufficiency, unrepresentative sample…
Identify the type of conclusion used in the stimulus argument. The correct conclusion type will match,

61
Q

parallel principle questions

A

Need to identify the principle underlying the argument in the stimulus and then apply the principle to a similar argument in the correct answer
Correct answer will likely discuss a different topic than the stimulus

62
Q

Which of the following, if added to the premises, allows the argument’s conclusion to be properly drawn?

A

Sufficient assumption
Correct answer will guarantee the conclusion

63
Q

Which of the following best characterizes the argument’s error of reasoning?

A

Flaw question
Correct answer will describe the flawed assumption

64
Q

Each of the following, if true, casts doubt on the argument EXCEPT:

A

Weaken EXCEPT question
Correct answer will either strengthen or have no effect on conclusion.

65
Q

In evaluating the argument’s conclusion, it would be most valuable to know whether

A

Evaluate question
Correct answer would provide information will either strengthen or weaken the conclusion.

66
Q

Which of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

A

Necessary assumption
Correct answer will state an assumption that is necessary for the conclusion to stand.
Confirm answer using the denial test - when a necessary assumption is negated, the conclusion falls apart.

67
Q

Which of the following, if true, would do most to justify the conclusion drawn above?

A

Strengthen question
Correct answer will strengthen the conclusion by supporting the assumption

68
Q

Which of the following, if true, most calls into question the argument above?

A

Weaken question
Correct answer will weaken the conclusion by attacking the assumption

69
Q

The reasoning in the argument above is questionable because…

A

Flaw question
Correct answer will describe the argument’s flawed assumption

70
Q

Which of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends?

A

Necessary assumption question
Correct answer will state an assumption that is necessary for the conclusion to stand.
Confirm correct answer by the denial test - when the correct answer is negated, the conclusion falls apart

71
Q

The argument is vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?

A

Flaw question
Correct answer will describe the argument’s flawed assumption

72
Q

Which of the following lends most support to the argument above?

A

Strengthen question
Correct answer will support conclusion by supporting the assumption

73
Q

The conclusion drawn above is unwarranted because

A

Flaw
Correct answer will describe the argument’s flawed assumption

74
Q

Which of the following principles most helps justify the reasoning above?

A

Principle-strengthen
Correct answer will strengthen the conclusion in broadly worded terms.

75
Q

The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is presupposed?

A

Sufficient assumption
Correct answer will guarantee the conclusion

76
Q

Which of the following, if true, most undermines the argument above?

A

Weaken question
Correct answer will weaken the conclusion by attacking the argument’s assumption.

77
Q

The author makes which one of the following assumptions?

A

Necessary assumption
Correct answer will state an assumption that is necessary for the conclusion to stand.
Confirm correct answer by the denial test - when the correct answer is negated, the conclusion falls apart

78
Q

The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?

A

Parallel flaw
Correct answer will contain argument that is flaws in the same way that the argument in the stimulus is flawed

LSAT prep (2 decks)

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