Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

NWP Special Constable Exam > Assaults > Flashcards

Assaults Flashcards

1
Q

What is an assault?

A

Any act which intentionally or recklessly causes another to apprehend immediate unlawful violence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Does there need to be physical contact for an assault to take place?

A

No - the mental elements of this crime (the defendant’s mens rea of intentionality/recklessness and the victim’s apprehension of violence are mental elements which are sufficient for the definition of assault)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Can assaults be carried out by acts and omissions?

A

No - assaults are acts only. Assault cannot be committed through omission.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What Mens Rea are need to be proved for assault?

A

The the defendant either

1) intended to causes apprehension of immediate unlawful violence in the victim;
2) had subjective recklessness as to that consequence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What should be considered in relation to the victim to determine commission of assault?

A

Their state of apprehension of being subjected to immediate unlawful violence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

If X aims a toy firearm at Y and Y is not aware it is an imitation has an assault been committed?

A

Yes - Y apprehends violence even if the toy firearm cannot actually produce this, so an assault is committed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

If X aims a toy firearm at Y and Y knows it is an imitation has an assault been committed?

A

No - Y knows the toy is an imitation only and so does not apprehend violence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Is apprehension the same as fear?

A

No - the victim does not need to fear the violence - they may even relish the opportunity to teach a lesson to their assaulter and still be regarded as the victim. They must only apprehend the possibility of immediate violence.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Does the victim need to believe the possibility of violence to be a certainty for assault to be committed?

A

No - violence does not need to be a certainty but only a possibility in the immediate future

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What are the parameters of “immediate” in regard to violence for assault?

A

The immediacy is somewhat elastic i.e. a threat can be made from outside a victim’s house and be considered assault although a short time will elapse before this can take place. Typically, no more than one or two minutes constitutes immediate.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What must the victim fear for assault?

A

They must fear FORCE - it isn’t enough to show that a person threatened with words/silence feared more words/silence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Are words and silence sufficient to amount to the Actus Reus of assault?

A

Yes - so long as they are accompanied by the appropriate Mens Rea and induce apprehension of immediate force

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What forms of communication are accepted as a method for committing assault?

A

Any form of communication can be used as a method for assault, including letters so long as they induce apprehension of immediate force

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Are conditional threats an assault?

A

Words of conditional threats can often negate an assault by rendering the threat hypothetical i.e. “If these officers weren’t here, I’d chin you!”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is battery?

A

When a person intentionally or recklessly (subjective) inflicts unlawful force on another

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What does battery require?

A

Physical contact with the victim

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Can battery be carried out by phone?

A

No - physical contact is required for battery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Is the defendant attacking the victim’s clothing sufficient for battery?

A

Yes - so long as the victim is wearing it on them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Is assault required before battery takes place?

A

No - i.e. a blow may be struck from behind without warning

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What level of physical contact is required for battery?

A

A very small degree of physical contact - it does NOT have to be an act of serious violence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Can battery be caused indirectly also?

A

Yes - force instance a defendant attacking a female victim in which this causes her to drop her child will be regarded as battery against the child also

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What extract of legislation covers assault and battery?

A

The Criminal Justice Act 1988 Section 39

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is key to prove in assault cases?

A

The unlawfulness of the force used

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What might negate a charge of assault/battery?

A

Consent of the alleged victim (either express or implicit)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What is needed to disprove a defence of consent?

A

To show that the behaviour complained about went beyond what was acceptable in those particular circumstances

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Is it possible to consent to violence which is not in the remit of the rules of a context i.e. a sporting game?

A

No

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Do teachers employed at special needs schools consent to the use of pupil violence against them by implication?

A

No

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Will victim consent still be admissible as a defence in situations where it was gained by fraud?

A

Victim consent may be used as a defence unless the fraud disguised the identity of the defendant or the nature and quality of their act i.e. a doctor indecently touching their patient during a routine medical exam

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Can the defence of consent be brought in cases of sado-masochism?

A

In cases where harm of ABH or higher is deliberately inflicted, consent will ordinarily be deemed to be invalid on the grounds of public policy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Can the defence of consent be brought in cases of serious harm brought about for sexual gratification?

A

No - this is NOT a defence for “relevant offences” (ABH and above)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Which law prevents serious harm inflicted for sexual gratification being admitted under the defence of consent?

A

The Domestic Abuse Act 2021, Section 71 (2)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is included as an offence causing “serious harm” for sexual gratification?

A

1) GBH
2) Wounding
3) ABH

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Is corporal punishment of school pupils by teachers legal?

A

No

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Which legislation prevents teachers conducting corporal punishment on pupils?

A

The Education Act 1996, Section 548

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

For what purpose may teachers use reasonable force in relation to pupils?

A

For restraining violence or disruptive pupils

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What does the defence of Reasonable Punishment (of a child) apply to?

A

To anybody acting in loco parentis, preventing them from using anything above common assault (threats) to punish a child

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Is lawful chastisement an available defence to parents in Wales?

A

Yes - until the 21st of March and only where punishment is deemed reasonable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

How are Common Assault and Battery triable?

A

Summarily, in magistrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What is the possible penalty for Common Assault/Battery

A

Six months’ imprisonment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

How are Common Assault and Battery triable when Racially or Religiously Aggravated?

A

Either way, in Crown or Magistrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What is the possible penalty for Common Assault/Battery when racially/religiously aggravated in Crown Court?

A

Two years’ imprisonment and/or fine on indictment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is the possible penalty for Common Assault/Battery when racially/religiously aggravated in Magistrates Court?

A

Six months’ imprisonment and/or fine summarily

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Do racially/religious aggravated offences need to be included alongside another indictable offence to be tried on indictment?

A

No - a charge on indictment is appropriate where no injury occurred

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

How is an assault on an emergency worker triable?

A

Either way, in Crown or Magistrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What is the possible penalty assault on an emergency worker in Crown Court?

A

To imprisonment for a term not exceeding 12 months, or to a fine, or both

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What is the possible penalty assault on an emergency worker in Magistrates Court?

A

To imprisonment for a term not exceeding 6 months, or to a fine, or both

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

When does assault on an emergency worker apply?

A

When a person is acting in functions of an emergency worker, whether in work time or outwith it, whether paid or unpaid.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What is an assault on an emergency worker deemed as when trying in a court?

A

An aggravating factor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What extract of legislation covers Assault Occasioning Actual Bodily Harm?

A

Offences Against the Person Act 1861, Section 47

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

How is Assault Occasioning Actual Bodily Harm triable?

A

Either way, in Crown or Magistrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

What is the penalty for Assault Occasioning ABH on indictment?

A

Five years imprisonment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What is the penalty for Assault Occasioning ABH summarily?

A

Six months imprisonment and/or a fine summarily

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

How is Racially/Religiously Aggravated Assault Occasioning ABH triable?

A

Either way, in Crown or Magistrates

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What is the penalty for Racially/Religiously Aggravated Assault Occasioning ABH on indictment?

A

Seven years’ imprisonment and/or fine on indictment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What is the penalty for Racially/Religiously Aggravated Assault Occasioning ABH summarily?

A

Six months’ imprisonment and/or a fine on indictment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

What is the only real difference between Common Assault/Battery and ABH?

A

1) The degree of harm suffered by the victim and

2) the sentence available

57
Q

What must be shown to prove Assault Occasioning ABH?

A

That actual bodily harm has been the direct or indirect consequence of the defendant’s actions

58
Q

What is ABH?

A

Any hurt calculated to interfere with the health or comfort of the victim

59
Q

Does hurt have to be permanent to be counted as ABH?

A

No - it need not be permanent but it must be more than transient or trifling

60
Q

Can psychological harm be counted as ABH?

A

Yes - so long as it involves more than mere emotions such a fear/distress etc. and induces something more like shock or mental ‘injury’

61
Q

Can an act which causes a momentary loss of consciousness without producing physical injury be classed as ABH?

A

Yes - it produces injurious impairment of the victim’s sensory abilities which are more than trifling

62
Q

Can the substantial cutting of a victim’s hair be deemed ABH though pain is not caused?

A

Yes - though hair may be senseless tissue, it is nonetheless tissue connected to the body and is therefore ‘bodily’

63
Q

What is the CPS’ recommendations for making a charge of ABH?

A

ABH should be charged where injuries and overall circumstances indicate the offence merits more than 6 months imprisonment

64
Q

Which extract of legislation covers Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm?

A

Offences Against the Person Act 1861, Section 20

65
Q

How is Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm triable?

A

Either way, in Crown or Magistrates

66
Q

What is the penalty for Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm on indictment?

A

Five years’ imprisonment

67
Q

What is the penalty for Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm summarily?

A

Six months’ imprisonment and/or a fine

68
Q

What is the penalty for Racially/Religiously Aggravated Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm on indictment?

A

Seven years’ imprisonment and/or fine

69
Q

What is the penalty for Racially/Religiously Aggravated Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm summarily?

A

Six months’ imprisonment and/or fine

70
Q

What is the definition of Wounding or Inflicting Grievous Bodily Harm?

A

Whosoever shall unlawfully and maliciously wound or inflict any grievous bodily harm upon any other person, either with or without any weapon or instrument, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour

71
Q

What is the Mens Rea for Wounding or Inflicting GBH?

A

Unlawfully or maliciously (where malice is not necessarily premeditation but subjective recklessness - they saw a risk and did it anyway)

72
Q

What is the Actus Reus for Wounding or Inflicting GBH?

A

Inflicting GBH on another, with or without a weapon or instrument

73
Q

What is the meaning of malice in the context of wounding or inflicting GBH?

A

Malice in the context of GBH amounts to subjective recklessness - the defendant recognised there was a risk of SOME harm being causes but acted anyway. They do not necessarily have to premeditate an act for malice, though this is admissible.

74
Q

Does the defendant have to have foreseen the degree of harm which is caused by their act to properly constitute Wounding or Inflicting GBH?

A

No - they only need to have foreseen that their behaviour may bring about some risk to the victim

75
Q

What is the definition of wounding?

A

The breaking of the continuity of the whole of the skin (dermis and epidermis) externally or internally, OR the breaking of the inner skin i.e. within the cheek, lip, urethra etc. It is life changing damage.

76
Q

Does the rupturing of blood vessels (bruising) in itself amount to Wounding/GBH?

A

No

77
Q

Does a physical accosting need to occur for Wounding/GBH?

A

No - harm can be inflicted both directly AND indirectly i.e. with menacing phone calls producing profound mental health damage

78
Q

Can a large number of minor wounds suffice as Wounding/GBH

A

Yes

79
Q

Can the deliberate or knowing infection of another with a sexually transmitted disease amount to GBH?

A

Yes - so long as the victim has not known of the defendant’s likely or certain infection prior to consenting to intercourse

80
Q

Which extract of legislation covers Wound or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent?

A

Offences Against the Person Act 1861, Section 18

81
Q

How is Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent triable?

A

On indictment only, in Crown Court

82
Q

What is the penalty for Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent

A

Life imprisonment

83
Q

What is the definition of Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent

A

Whosoever shall unlawfully and maliciously by any means whatsoever wound or cause any grievous bodily harm to any person with intent to do some grievous bodily harm to any person, or with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension or detainer of any person, shall be guilty of felony…

84
Q

What are the 4 subtypes of offence included under Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm with Intent?

A

1) Wounding with intent to do GBH
2) Causing GBH with intent to do so
3) Maliciously wounding with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension of any person
4) Maliciously causing GBH with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension of any person

85
Q

What MUST be proven to show Section 18 Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent rather than the Section 20 offence, Wounding or Inflicting GBH?

A

Either

1) the intent to do GBH to anyone
2) the intent to resist/prevent the lawful apprehension/detention of anyone

86
Q

What 4 example factors may indicate the intent to do GBH on anyone or resist/prevent lawful apprehension/detention of anyone?

A

1) Evidence of repeated/planned attack
2) Deliberate selection of a weapon or adaptation of an article to cause injury
3) Making prior threats
4) Using an offensive weapon

87
Q

When is it necessary to prove malice in relation to Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent?

A

With respect to wounding or GBH performed with the intent to resist the lawful apprehension/detention of anyone

88
Q

What must the prosecution prove in order to charge with Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent to resist lawful apprehension/detention

A

That the apprehension/detention was itself lawful

89
Q

Must the prosecution proven a defendant knew that apprehension/detention to be lawful in order to charge with Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent to resist lawful apprehension/detention?

A

No - they only need prove the apprehension/detention was lawful, not that the defendant knew this

90
Q

Can the intentional infection of a victim with a sexually transmitted disease constituent Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent?

A

Yes - it must be proven that it was the defendant’s intention however

91
Q

Can charges of racially or religiously aggravated assaults be applicable to a charge of Wounding or Causing Grievous Bodily Harm With Intent?

A

No - not formally for prosecution but the Courts should still take account of this in their assessment

92
Q

Which extract of legislation covers Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest?

A

Offences Against the Person Act 1861, Section 38

93
Q

How is Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest triable?

A

Either way, in Court or Magistrates

94
Q

What is the penalty for Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest?

A

Two years’ imprisonment

95
Q

What is the definition of Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest?

A

Whosoever shall assault any person with intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension or detainer or himself or of any other person for any offence, shall be guilty

96
Q

What 2 things must be proven for a charge of Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest?

A

1) That the defendant intended to resist or prevent the lawful arrest or detention of a person (himself or another
2) That the arrest/detention was lawful

97
Q

Who can Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest apply to as regards those doing the arresting?

A

Anyone with the power of arrest, police officers and members of the public with a citizen’s arrest

98
Q

Does it matter whether the defendant had actually committed the offence the arrest was attempted in relation to when considering Assault with Intent to Resist Arrest?

A

No - a mistaken belief on the part of those arresting does not provide a defence of ‘mistake’ to the defendant, nor does a belief in one’s own innocence

99
Q

What extract of legislation covers Assault Police?

A

Police Act 1996, Section 89

100
Q

How is Assault Police triable?

A

Summarily, in Magistrates

101
Q

What is the penalty for Assault Police?

A

Six months’ imprisonment and/or a fine

102
Q

What is the definition of Assault Police?

A

Any person who assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty, shall be guilty of an offence

103
Q

What must be proven by the prosecution for a legitimate charge of Assault Police?

A

That the officer is proven to have been acting in the execution of his or her duty when assaulted

104
Q

If a constable is doing more than the law requires, can they still be said to be acting in the lawful execution of their duty regarding an Assault Police charge?

A

Yes

105
Q

What must be proven for a legitimate charge of Assault Police where the assault was made in reaction so some form of physical act by the officer?

A

That the officer’s act was not itself unlawful

106
Q

In what instances may an officer take somebody by the arm lawfully without instigating formal arrest procedures?

A

1) to attract the person’s attention
2) to calm the person down
Otherwise, the officer may be said to have performed battery

107
Q

What is a custody officer entitled to assumed when a prisoner is arrested and brought into custody?

A

That their arrest has been lawful

108
Q

If a prisoner assaults a custody officer, and their arrest later is revealed to be unlawful, can they still be charged with Assault Police?

A

Yes - custody officers are entitled to assume a prisoner’s arrest has been made lawfully

109
Q

Must it be proven a defendant knew that the person they assaulted was a police officer and acting in the lawful execution of their duty for a charge or Assault Police?

A

No - these things do not need to be proven

110
Q

In what circumstance may the necessary Mens Rea be said not to be present with regard to a charge of Assault Police?

A

If the defendant claims they acted in self-defence under the mistaken, honestly held belief they were being attacked

111
Q

Which extract of legislation covers Obstruct Police?

A

Police Act 1996, Section 89

112
Q

How is Obstruct Police triable?

A

Summarily, in Magistrates

113
Q

What is the penalty for Obstruct Police?

A

One months’ imprisonment and/or fine

114
Q

What is the definition of Obstruct Police?

A

Any person who resists or wilfully obstructs a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty, shall be guilty

115
Q

What must be proven for a charge of Obstruct Police?

A

That the constable was acting in the lawful execution of their duty.

116
Q

Must obstruction be in physical form for a charge of Obstruct Police?

A

No - it may come via warning other motorists of a speed check, deliberately providing misleading information, delivering drinking alcohol when providing a breath specimen etc

117
Q

How should obstruction be interpreted in respect of Obstruct Police?

A

Any act which makes it more difficult for a constable to carry out his/her duty

118
Q

Is refusing to answer an officer’s questions, or advising another not to, Obstruct Police?

A

No - unless the Defendant is under some duty to provide information

119
Q

What must the nature of the obstruction be for a charge or Obstruct Police?

A

It must be wilful - the defendant must intend to obstruct

120
Q

Will obstruction be deemed wilful if the defendant was trying to help police by their actions, and their help was more of a hindrance?

A

No

121
Q

Can Obstruct Police be committed through omission?

A

Yes - but only where the defendant was already under some duty towards the officer

122
Q

Is refusing to go to the aid of a constable permissible for a charge of Obstruct Police?

A

Yes - in common law

123
Q

Can a charge of assault ever legitimately include killing of another person?

A

No - assaults are non-fatal assaults against the person

124
Q

Can a common assault and battery occur simultaneously?

A

No - you can either have one or the other for any single act

125
Q

Would threats made down the phone, with the defendant many miles away from the victim qualify as common assault?

A

No - the apprehension of unlawful violence must be immediate

126
Q

What qualitative level of harm is included within Battery?

A

Most minor injury - light bruising, redness of unbroken skin and really tiny cuts

127
Q

What qualitative level of harm is included within Actual Bodily Harm?

A

Minor bruising, small fractures i.e. of the finger, a tooth knocked out - ABH will interfere with the victim’s health or comfort

128
Q

What qualitative level of harm is included within Grievous Bodily Harm?

A

Major broken bones, cuts that will leave scarring

129
Q

If you are not sure which offence to charge for based on the injuries caused, what should you do?

A

Charge for the more serious offence - CPS can knock it to lesser offence examination as necessary

130
Q

If you encounter an example of injury causing loss of consciousness, which level(s) of assault should you automatically be looking to charge for?

A

ABH or GBH

131
Q

What are the three main defences to assault charges?

A

1) Consent
2) Legal justification
3) General Defences (to an extent)

132
Q

Can anybody ever consent to assault?

A

No - they can only consent to pain in certain specific circumstances

133
Q

Against what 3 conditions is a proposed defence to an assault charge judged?

A

1) Consequence of the act
2) Dangerousness of the act
3) Vulnerability of the victim

134
Q

What are the only conditions under which Common Assault or Battery may be come an indictable offence?

A

When they have been racially or religiously motivated

135
Q

What must specifically be the case with regard to a defendant’s intent when considering guilt against a Wounding or Inflicting GBH with intent?

A

The defendant cannot just have foreseen the risk of injury - they must have specifically set out with the intent to cause harm at GBH level

136
Q

Can recklessness be a motivation for a charge of Wounding or Inflicting GBH with intent?

A

No - the only Mens Rea is the intent to cause injury at a GBH level

137
Q

At what levels of bodily assault can a charge of Assault Police be charged?

A

At the level of common assault or battery only

138
Q

If the level of injury is ABH or above, can a defendant be charged with Assault Police?

A

No - they would be charged with ABH or GBH (with intent)

NWP Special Constable Exam (26 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions