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DomDecks > ASQ CSSYB - Six Sigma Yellow Belt > Flashcards

ASQ CSSYB - Six Sigma Yellow Belt Flashcards

1
Q

What Six Sigma measures?

A

Variant in the process leads to opportunities for the error -> product deffects -> unsatisfied customers. Six sigma works with variation reduction

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2
Q

What is six sigma

A

(i) methodology of the process improvement
(ii) a statistical concept that seeks to define inherent variaton (naturally occuring variation through time)
(iii) - KPI how well the company is doing on particular process.

6s - perfect process - 99.99966 processes are without deffect.

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3
Q

Six Sigma combined with business experience

A

6s provides mathematical and statistical foundation for for decision making, which together with experience and intuitation shoud enable good results

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4
Q

Non 6s process improvement method steps

A
  1. Idea
  2. Decision making regarding the idea
  3. Idea implemented
  4. Success weighted after implementation
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5
Q

Beta testing

A

Implementing idea with the select group of people in controlled environment. Helps to reduce the risks and find problems before rolling out. Not part of 6s method.

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6
Q

6s improvement steps

A
  1. id problems
  2. validate assumptions
  3. brainstorm sollutions
  4. plan implementation

Statistical analysis and process mapping enable team to predict outcome with high level of certainty.

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7
Q

1 to 6 sigmas - formula

A

6s if the highest steps from the sigmas 1s has 69% of deffects, while 6s has 0.023% deffects.

Defect/(Product x Opportunities) x 1000000

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8
Q

6s as KPI

A

6s is not final KPI, sometimes low levels of sigma do not indicate the need for improvement, it is important to consider other factors such as (i) customer need and (ii) profitability.

Both would require statistical analysis

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9
Q

Six Sigma principles (focus areas)

A

Customer focused improvements - we should always establish what customer wants from the improvements

Continous process improvements - find low sigma and impove that

Reduce variation (didference in the service levels)

Remove waste

Equiping employees to control (plan, act, control). Control phase left for employees

Controlling outcomes - applying statistical controls which ensure that process remains within boundries of statistical control

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10
Q

Value stream

A

Sequence of all items, events and people

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11
Q

6s issues

A

Lack of Support - no management support, employees do no support, afraid or happy with their process
Lack of Resources or Knowledge - consultants are expensive to hire, no good access to the tools
Poor Project Execution - 1st project executed poorly
Data Access Issues - no data, poor data or overwhelming data
Concerns about Using 6s in a Specific Industry - suitable only for factory?

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12
Q

Tqm v 6s

A

Both concern PECE
Tqm - ends with goal
6s - never ends

Difference in cultural element. 6s after the project is complete ensures progress continous and one cannot revert back.

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13
Q

DMAIC or DMADV

A

Six Sigma applies statistics to define, measure, analyze, verify, and control processes

Improve existing - Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control
Develop new - Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Verify

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14
Q

Toyota System

A

Define customer values
Identify the value stream for customer needs
Identify waste in the process
Create contious process flow
Continue to reduce number of steps it takes to reach customer satsifaction

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15
Q

Motorola system

A

6s applied to the processes
Step by step process for all sectors developed
Created methodology for all

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16
Q

Individuals that contributed most to 6s

A

Gauss - probability distribution
Shewart - 6s and control charts
Deming - plan do control act (toyota production system)
Harry - 6s inventor - Motorolla
Schroeder - quality delivers profits
Welsch - ceo approach to 6s, statistical process controls

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17
Q

Six Sigma - steps - short version (3 steps)

A
  1. Quantify broken processes
    - sigma level
    - cost of defects
    - downtime
    - other
  2. Cost of adressing problem
  3. Prioritisation
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18
Q

Belts

A

White - basic overview of 6s, meant for ordinary employee

Yellow - understand overall methodology + dmaic
6s roles, quality tools (pareto, scatter etc), 6s metrics, data collection, root cause, hypothesis testing.

Green - handles small projects under supervision of Bl belt
Black. Have intermediate statistical knowledge, can address data abd analysis concerns.

The following concepts are often included in Green Belt training:

All of the information listed for yellow belt certification
Failure mode and effects analysis Project and team management Probability and the Central Limit Theorem
Statistical distributions
Descriptive statistics
How to perform basic hypothesis testing
Waste elimination and Kaizen
Basic control charts

Black belt

Advanced project and team management skills
Knowledge of the expansive list of Six Sigma brainstorming and project tools Intermediate to advanced statistics
An understanding of other process improvement and quality programs, including Lean and Total
Quality Management
An ability to design processes
Advanced capabilities for diagraming processes, including flow charts and value stream maps
Use of software to conduct analysis, such as Excel or Minitab

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19
Q

Lean

A

Perfect when 0 waste

Remove (i) waste or (ii) create value for the customer through Kaizen (change for better) through continous improvement

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20
Q

TQM

A

Stepping stone to 6s

Perfect - defined by themselves

Requires
Quality = ethics + integrity + trust
Organisation = training + teamwork + leadership + recognition and Communication

Helped to move from silos to organisational thinking

A strict quality commitment at all levels of the organization, especially among leaders
• Empowered employees who can make quality decisions while working within the process
without constantly seeking leadership approval for those decisions
• A reward and recognition structure to promote quality work so that employees have a reason to
make quality-making decisions
• Strategic planning that takes quality and quality improvement goals into account when making
long-term decisions
• Systems that let organizations make improvements and monitor quality

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21
Q

Busines Process Reengineering

A

BPR - expensive and mostly concerned with IT

Plannning - define as is
Design - validation that new will work with existing structure
Implement -

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22
Q

Rummler Brache

A

Matrix
manager design goals
Performer
Process
Organisation

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23
Q

Scrum

A

Scrum is a project development method specific to Agile programming endeavors in technical departments. Scrum is used when teams want to create new technical products or integrate new developments on existing products within a short time frame and existing resources. Commonly, Scrum projects last between two and four weeks, which is traditionally a very tight timeline for programming projects.

Pregame - defining scope with business
Games - dev in sprints. QA ar sprints end
PostGame - QA

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24
Q

The Customer Experience Management

A

Developed by Virgin

Focuses on what customer needs and how eqch process in organisation serves that need. Purpose allign processes with needs.

Relies on data

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25
Q

JumpStart

A

Fast method to id problems and sollutions. Define and solve in one session.

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26
Q

When to use six sigma

A

When facing unknown or undefined
When solving complex problems
When costs tied to processes

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27
Q

DPMO

A

Defects per million of opportunities
DPO = # defects/(# opportunities * # units) * 1000000

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28
Q

DPU

A

Deffects per unit

Number of deffects / number of units

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29
Q

FTY

A

Probability that unit will be generated without errors

First time yield - ratio of produced units. Calculated same as dpu, however in stages.

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30
Q

RTY

A

Rolling througput yield

Probability that unit will be generated without errors.

Calculated same as FTY however taking into consideration rework

5 scrapped and 5 reworked. Although total outcome 95 we deduct rework as well.
1. (100 - (5+5)) / 100 = 0.9
2. (95 - (5+5)) / 90 = 0.944

0.9 * 0.944 = 0,85

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31
Q

Lean main concepts

A

We should always deliver value that customer can recognise

We should alwys reduce number of steps

We should do that through removal of waste (muuda)

7 Muuda
2 Types of muuda
5 S
Kaizen
Morning market
JIT

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32
Q

2 types of Muuda

A
  1. Muuda non value added taks that are necessary - e.g rework or quality control
  2. Muuda non value added tasks are not essential and should be removed
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33
Q

5S

A

Workspace (desk, computer, tasks) organisation to id and remove wastw

Sort - keep only what is necessary
Straighten - all items have a correct place
Shine - keep workplace clean, return all items
Standardize - maintain order
Sustain - all team must be committed

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34
Q

JIT (just in time manfucaturing)

A

Process where there little to no overproduction or inventory collection e.g. all machines work at the same speed of 1 item per 1 second

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35
Q

Lean - overproduction

A

Product was made
1. Too fast
2. At Wrong time
3. Too much

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36
Q

Lean - correction

A

Occurs when there desire to eliminate final product deffects.

Process which reworks the products

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37
Q

Lean - Inventory

A

Task or goods stackup at specific place of process

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38
Q

Lean - motion

A

Waste of human motion deals with movement in workplace or desktop

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39
Q

Lean - conveyance

A

Waste resulting from movement of items (outputs) / transportation waste

e.g. approval process, or report creation process

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40
Q

Lean - overprocessing

A

More done than valued by the customet

Causes - ignorance, desire of perfection

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41
Q

Lean - waiting

A

Waiting is any idle time in between the processes

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42
Q

Lean - other wastes

A

Talent - wrong employee at wrong place
Capital - not allocates
Idea - no heard

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43
Q

Standard deviation (per population and per sample)

A

Sample - specific data set
Popullation - all data

Standard variation
- Calculate the mean of the population/sample
- Substract mean from each number and square it
- Add all numbers from 2 and divide by the numbers in the population (for sample data deduct 1 from number of the sample items)
- extract square root

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44
Q

Process control and improvement

A
  1. Determine if process is functional
  2. Improve the process
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45
Q

Likert scale

A

5 points

Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree

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46
Q

Paretto chart (principle)

A

20% of the causes lead to 80% of deffects.

Few inputs create most of variance

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47
Q

VoC

A

Voice of customer. Various methodics to collect customer feedback.

Can be General (NPS) or specific (how do you like new sandwich)

Surveys, focus groups, interviews, beta testing, complaints, social media, reviews, forums

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48
Q

DPU

A

Deffects per Unit

How many deffects in the unit measured.

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49
Q

DPMO

A

Sames as DPO just multipy by 1 mil.

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50
Q

FTY

A

First Time Yield is a ratio of produced unit to attempted to produce = number of good units / all units in the batch.
Total - 100
step a - 95 = 95/100 = 0,95
step b - 80 = 80/95 = 0,84

0,95 * 0,84 = 0,798

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51
Q

RTY

A

Rolled throughput yield. Same FTY however we add re work to the number of faulty units.

Sample - (faulty items in the step + sum of all faulty items from all steps)

Total - 100
step a - 100 - (5+5) = 90 / 100 = 0.9
step b - 90 - (5+10) = 75/90 = 0.83
0.9 * 0,84 = 0,75

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52
Q

Problem as a function

A

y=f(x)
y - problem
f - function
x - inputs

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53
Q

5 whys - lean - tools

A

Ask 5 why questions about the problem to discover the root cause

SME - can help to id problem causes instantly
5 Why allows to arrive from generic problem to the conrete one

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54
Q

Problem statement

A

30s elevator pitch. Brief description of the problem so it could be understood by anyone

  • Where problem is occuring
  • When problem is occuring
  • What process did the problem involve
  • How is the problem measured
  • How much the problem is costing
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55
Q

Objectives statement (problem statement)

A

Problem statement leads to the objective goal statement which defines what needs to be improved

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56
Q

Scope definition (project charter))

A

Scope definition is necessary to establish what problem will be solved.

Scope creep happens when to much is added to the scope. One should stick to the objective

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57
Q

Process (Definition of the)

A

A collection of the steps, tasks and activities

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58
Q

Steps - definition (process)

A

Series of the steps that can be put into the operation procedure or graphical chart. Process maps use standard notations

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59
Q

Process - Processing time

A

Average time measure of the performing specific step

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60
Q

Process - Interdependencies (system thinking)

A

Interdependencies (or dependencies) are items process relies upstream and downstream.

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61
Q

Process - inputs (resources and assignments)

A

Things needed for the process - cash, bandwith, paper, skills and similar.

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62
Q

Process - inputs

A

Anything that enters the process and starts output production process

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63
Q

Process - outputs

A

The actual final result of the process. Customers that receive the output can be internal or external.

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64
Q

Process - events

A

Predefined criteria that start the process.

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65
Q

Process - tasks

A

Task are steps that turn input into the ouput

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66
Q

Process - decisions

A

Formal or informal rules that define how the process continues when rules are activated.

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67
Q

Process owners

A

A person who can approve the changes.

Process owner
- monitors process
- understand how process fits into the overall business
- ensures that process is documented
- ensures operators have resources and training

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68
Q

SME

A

Subject matter expert

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69
Q

SIPOC

A

Diagram used to understand process elements

Supliers - anyone who provides input for the ouput
Inputs - anything necessary for the process steps
Enablers - technology stack (software, drills and sim.)
Process - process steps
Outputs - result of the process
Customers - individuals who receive output

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70
Q

Lean - waste

A

Overproduction
Motion
Inventory
Conveyance
Correction
Overprocessing
Waiting

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71
Q

Describe the purpose of Six Sigma (fundamentals)

A

Six Sigma is structured and disciplined process designed to deliver perfect products and services on consistent basis. It aims at improving the bottom line by finding and eliminating the causes of mistakes and defects / deficiencies in business processes (reduce variation in products and/or services)

Invented by Dr Mikel Harry at Motorola

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72
Q

Describe sixSigma methodology DMAIC (fundamentals)

A

DMAIC stands for define, measure, analyse, improve, control.

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73
Q

Define (fundamentals)

A

Identify the issue e.g. causing decreased customer satisfaction

Define project management process

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74
Q

Measure (fundamentals)

A

Collect data from the process
Tools – PDCA, identify data collection plan, measurement systems analysis, collect data – check sheets, histograms, Pareto charts, run charts, scatter diagrams.

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75
Q

Analyse (fundamentals)

A

Study the process and data for clues to what is going on

Tools – PDSA, continual improvement, preventive maintenance, cleanliness, benchmark – continue process, central limit theorem, geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, shop audit, experiments

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76
Q

Improve (fundamentals)

A

Act on the data to change the process for improvement

Tools – PDSA, process improvement, organisational development, variation reduction, problem solving, brainstorm alternatives, create should be flowcharts, conduct FMEA, cost of quality, design experiments.

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77
Q

Control (fundamentals)

A

Monitor the system to sustain the gains
Tools – SDCA, Control plan, dynamic control plan, long-term MSA, mistake-proofing, process behaviour charts, update lessons learned.

In each step management has to provide the time and resources to accomplish each step, so everyone could strive for continual improvement.
- Everyone should be involved
- Data should be made available to everyone
- Financial data should be available in form of cost of quality analysis

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78
Q

Describe sixSigma evolution from quality
(fundamentals)

A
  1. Separation of work to speed up production (H. Ford)
  2. Quality improvements started with the control charts by Walter Shewhart
    • Father of statistical quality control charts (modern name – process behaviour charts)
    • Inventor of PDCA
  3. Quality control and quality assurance was created as separate role, which created separation of tasks impacting the mindset that quality is owned by QA
  4. Around 1980 – quality circles appear in Japan, they are small study groups with supervisors
  5. Mid 80’s statistical process control is introduced
  6. 90’s – present ISO 9000 – international standards on quality management
  7. 96-97 Reengineering – restructuring organisation around quality
  8. 88-96 Benchmarking – improvement process in which company measures its performance against best in class. Object for benchmarking are – strategies, operations, processes and procedures
  9. 90’s – present - Balanced score card – concept that helps to monitor their results
  10. 95 – present - Six Sigma
  11. 00 – present Lean
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79
Q

Subir Chowdhury (fundamentals)

A

Leader in customer satisfaction
• Quality begins at the top
• Quality is responsibility of everyone
• Problems can be prevented through continuous improvement
• Quality is balance between people power and process power.
o People power – mindset of approaching quality with honesty, empathy and resistance to compromise
o Process power – solving problems, developing ideas and solutions and then perfecting them.
LEO – listen, enrich, optimise

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80
Q

Philip Crosby (fundamentals)

A

Certified Manager of Quality/Organisational Excellence Handbook
14 steps for quality improvement

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81
Q

Edwards Deming (fundamentals) knowledge

A

Invented PDSA. Advocated to change management principles,
14 points for management
7 Diseases of management
System of profound knowledge
• Appreciation of system – understanding the processes
• Knowledge variation – the range and causes in quality variation
• Theory of knowledge – how to learn
• Knowledge of psychology – understand people (empathy)

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82
Q

Armand Feigenbaum (fundamentals)

A

Invented total quality control
Quality planning – thinking in advance - the sequence of actions to accomplish a proposed course of action to accomplish certain objectives.

Demonstrate them with diagrams, formulas, tables, etc.

Quality costs – the hidden factory

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83
Q

Kaoru Ishikawa (fundamentals)

A

Created fishbone diagram and cause and effect diagram. Quality circles. High focus on internal customers.

• Quality first – not short term profit
• Consumer orientation – not producer orientation
• The next process is your customer
• Use facts and data to make presentations
• Respect for humanity as a management philosophy.

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84
Q

Joseph Juran (fundamentals)

A

Juran trilogy
• Quality planing
• Quality control
• Quality improvement

Pareto principle – the vital few and trivial many

Management theory of quality

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85
Q

Dorian Shainin (fundamentals)

A

Developed Red X – toolset for quality improvement

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86
Q

Walter Shewhart (fundamentals)

A

Father of statistical quality control. Invented PDCA.

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87
Q

Genichi Taguchi (fundamentals)

A

Taguchi loss function – used to measure financial loss to society resulting from poor quality

Off-line quality control – design products that are insensitive to outside parameters.

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88
Q

Describe the value of Six Sigma to the organisation as a whole (fundamentals)

A

Six Sigma helps organisation to improve customer products and/or services through the reduction of variation in the processes (reduce cost of quality (S-Double Bar) and earn more money. This is done through continuous improvement of all aspects of the organisation. Results are demonstrated by standard accounting practices.

Philosophy - All work is process that can be DMAIC. Process requires inputs to control the outputs. If you control inputs you control the outputs.

Tools - Six Sigma is a set of tools that includes qualitative and quantitative techniques.

Methodology – DMAIC

Metrics – 3.4 defects per million (1.5 sigma shift in the mean)

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89
Q

Describe the purpose of lean (waste elimination) and its methodologies (just-in-time, poka-yoke, kanban, value stream mapping). (lean)

A

Lean system created by Toyota (Toyota Production System). Make obvious what adds value by reducing everything else through culture in organisation that promotes CI and development of people.

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90
Q

VWP (value, cost, waste, process) (lean)

A

• Value – is defined by the customer on their perception of usefulness and necessity (customer is wiling to pay for it). Cost of the product is defined by mixture of the current competitor selling price and and elimination of waste by lean.
o Customer recognises value
o It changes the product
o It is done right the first time
• Waste
• Process of creating value without waste

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91
Q

8 P’s (lean)

A

• Purpose
• Process
• People
• Pull
• Prevention
• Partnering
• Planet
• Perfection

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92
Q

5s (lean)

A

Organisation method to improve workplace efficiency and management of the operations in the environment (e.g. work place or computer Desktop)
• Sort – remove unneeded items. They tend to accumulate. Discard what is not not needed
• Set in order / Straighten – arrange required and less required items for ease of accessibility
• Shine – clean environment daily
• Standardise – develop check lists, standards and work instructions to keep environment clean
• Sustain – dedicate time to sustain the effort

In lean process step is considered value adding if the customer recognises its value

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93
Q

Andon (lean)

A

A visual feedback system that indicated production status (red, yellow, green lights)

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94
Q

A3 (lean)

A

Overview of key topics/issues on the one sheet of paper.

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95
Q

Bottleneck / TOC (lean)

A

Theory of constraints concentrates on the weakest link in the chain. Constraint is the process that is slowest. Flow of the system cannot improve if constraint is not removed. Employs system approach – improvement of the individual process will not improve the rate of the system unless they improve the constraint

• Identify – best indicator WIP (work in progress)
• Exploit – use Kaizen or other methods
• Subordinate – adjust rates in the process to match of the constraint
• Elevate – in case system needs further improvement – invest into new technology
• Repeat – find new constraint and repeat all over again.

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96
Q

Drum-Buffer-Rope (TOC) (lean)

A

Soldier theory. To avoid long lead times and excess WIP, all system processes should be slowed down (via rope which connects lowest to the fastest process) to the speed of the slowest process (the drum) with the amount of WIP (or buffer) determined by the dependability of the individual process – Goldratt Critical Chain.

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97
Q

Continous flow (lean)

A

Work in process smoothly flows through the system. Developing continuous flow remove many types of waste.

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98
Q

Gemba (lean)

A

Philosophy of the real place. Get out of office and spend time where things happen.

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99
Q

Heijunka (lean) tools

A

Production scheduling that purposely produces in much small batches.

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100
Q

Hoshin Kanri (lean) 23 stages

A

Why human do what machine can do better. 23 stages between pure manual and fully automated systems. Fully automated machine must be able to detect and correct their own operating problems (not cost effective)

101
Q

JIT (lean) tools

A

Items in production move just in time to avoid many different wastes. E.g. Storage of the unused inventory is a waste. Reduce in process inventory and associated carrying costs (e.g. storage)

102
Q

Kaizen (lean) tools

A

Continually improve processes through small incremental steps.

103
Q

Kaizen event (Kaikaku) (lean) tools

A

Breakthrough change. It is done by assembling the cross functional team for 3 to 5 days to improve process constraint.

104
Q

Kanban (lean) tools

A

Control system, which visually ensures timely movement of products and information in rational manner to generate JIT inputs and outputs. Kanban is implemented using visual indicators called Kanban cards. It is fundamental that other lean practices are mastered first before moving to Kanban.

105
Q

Overall Equipment Effectiveness (lean) tools

A

How effectively manufacturing operation is utilised.
• Availability
• Performance
• Quality
100% means manufacturing only good parts, as fast as possible with no downtime.

106
Q

PDCA or PDSA (lean) tools

A

Plan do check act. S stands for study, appeared as an improvement to check, as check is retrospective while S is continous.

107
Q

Poka Yoke (lean) tools

A

Method of error proofing e.g. electric plugs, control valves, car belt alarms and sim.

108
Q

Standard work (lean) tools

A

Tool that defines interaction between man and machine in producing a part and reduce variation.
• Standard time
• Standard inventory
• Standard sequence

109
Q

TaktTime (lean) tools

A

Method of matching production with demand. We try to match production cycle time with the demand rate. Customer demand sets the pace at which you need to produce.

110
Q

Total Productive Maintenance (lean)

A

The manufacturing and servicing equipment should be reliable.

To ensure lowest downtime technicians and line workers should help each other to reduce the downtime. Line technicians should be able to make simple maintenance themselves.

Metrics – OEE (overall equipment effectiveness)

111
Q

Value stream mapping (lean) tools

A

VSM provides visual information about the movement of material and information.

In any organisation there is a path through which products, documents and ideas flow.

Use value stream mapping to identify value added processes and steps or processes that produce waste, including excess inventory, unused space, test inspection, rework, transportation an storage.

VSM is series of activities that organisation performs such as order, design, produce and deliver products and services. VSM starts from supplier’s supplier and ends at the customer’s customer.
• Flow of materials from receipt of supplier materials to delivery of finished goods or services
• Transformation of raw materials into finished goods or inputs to the outputs.
• The flow of information required to support the flow of the material and transformation of goods and services

Value stream map is supported by value stream analysis

Steps
• Produce value stream map
• Analyse all inventory
• Analyse the entire value stream for unneeded steps
• Determine how the flow is driven. Strive to move towards value streams in which production decisions are base don the pull of the customer demand
• Extend value stream map upstream into the suppliers’ plants.

When starting pick narrow focus.

112
Q

Visual factory (lean)

A

Visual identification of the status of the material and information throughout the value stream. Real time metrics that demonstrate units produced, units to complete order and machine statuses.

113
Q

Overproduction (lean)

A

Making more than needed, or earlier or faster than needed which creates excess WIP

114
Q

Inventory (lean)

A

maintenance of any inventory (e.g storage, accounting and sim.)

115
Q

Excess motion (lean)

A

time wasted on searching or moving supplies or equipment

116
Q

Waiting (lean)

A

missing people, delayed shipments, long setup time. Waiting results in waste of resources and demoralisation of the personnel.

117
Q

Rework (lean)

A

Fixing items that have bad quality

Occura because of
* Poor equipment maintenance
* Poor quality systems
* Poor training / work instructions
* Poor product design

118
Q

Excess processing (lean)

A

creating value that customet does not recognise. E.g. doing work that does not create any value e.g. double work of entering all into the system and then creating paper file for manual signature

119
Q

Lost creativity (lean)

A

organisation structures are built to suppress employee creativity to improve the processes

120
Q

Perfection (lean)

A

the goal of the elimination of muda is to strive for perfection.

121
Q

7QS (lean) tools

A

7 basic quality tools used for process improvement

Check sheet
Fishbone diagram (cause and effect diagram, or Ishikawa diagram)
Histogram
Pareto chart
Control chart
Scatter diagram
Stratification

122
Q

Describe the value of lean to the organisation as a whole (lean) - pholosophy and 4 areas

A

Lean as a methodology ensures value creation for the customer through the reduction of waste. This is done through various lean tools. Methodology should be supported by the management.

All non value added steps should be removed from the system. The system should only produce value added steps.

Lean management benefits organizations by focusing on improving all parts of the work process throughout every level of the company’s hierarchy. Specifically, managers benefit from advantages such as:
• A more intelligent business process - The pull system ensures work is only carried out when there is an actual demand and need for it.
• Improved use of resources - The pull system also ensures the organization is only using resources when they are needed since it operates based on real customer demand.
• Improved focus - Lean management decreases the amount of wasteful activities, therefore allowing the workforce to increase their focus on tasks that produce value.
• Enhanced productivity and efficiency - Improved focus leads to a more productive and efficient workforce since attention is not given to unnecessary activities.
These major benefits work together to create a company that is more flexible and has the ability to address customer requirements in an improved and faster manner. Overall, the lean management system creates a solid production system that has a higher chance of improving a company’s total performance.

123
Q

Yellow belt (fundamentals)

A

These are the project-specific, full-or part-time resources that provide process and cross-functional knowledge, as well as help to sustain the gains.

• A Yellow Belt has basic knowledge of Six Sigma
• They do not lead projects on their own, as does a Green Belt or Black Belt.
• YB participates as a core team member or subject matter expert (SME) on DMAIC project or projects. Supports Green Belt or Black Belt in developing process maps, helping with data capture, facilitating simulation, and improvements.
• YBs may often be responsible for driving smaller process improvement projects using Lean tools (problem solving tools) or best practice sharing in their processes.

124
Q

Green Belts (fundamentals)

A

Six Sigma Green Belts are the engine of Six Sigma projects. They are responsible for scoping the projects, leading the project team, calling for help when needed, managing interfaces with business leaders, and ensuring sustainable results.

• Project Execution
• Team and Project Structuring
• Six Sigma Project Results
• Share Best Practices

125
Q

Black belt (fundamentals)

A

Full-time/part time project leaders and mentors of the business, including Green Belts and other associates. They have tactical responsibility for executing specific projects and ensuring that the results are captured, the changes are owned by the Champions (Sponsors), and the changes are sustained.

• Six sigma strategy and roll-out plan for the given process/area
• Execute Projects
• Help and guide Project Resources/ Help remove project level Barriers
• Team and Project Structuring
• 6 sigma Project Results
• Mentor Green Belts
• Share Best Practices

126
Q

Master black belt (fundamentals)

A

These individuals are responsible for translating the high level business goals into a Six Sigma strategy:
• Six sigma strategy and roll-out plan in the organization/function
• Manage Project of the function
• Mentor Teams
• Achieve Lean Six Sigma Results
• Cross-Functional Leadership
• Project Execution and Removing Roadblocks

127
Q

Sponsor (fundamentals)

A

Business unit leader responsible for profit and loss, usually director. Set direction and allocate resources.

128
Q

Champion (fundamentals)

A

An individual who has the authority to use resources within or outside an organization for completion of a given project. They are responsible for the project, removal of barriers and availability of the resources for projects

129
Q

Process owner (fundamentals)

A

Persons who have responsibility for the execution and implementation of a specific process. Recognised through documentation, job position org.chart.

130
Q

Stakeholder or Individual Contributor (fundamentals)

A

Anyone who has vested interest in products and outputs – customers, suppliers, employees, investors, communities.

Stakeholder benefits
• Have best process knowledge
• Have best ideas for improvement
• Are aware of the unintended consequences
• Buy in required for the change

131
Q

Type of teams (fundamentals)

A

Identify the various types of teams that operate within an organisation i.e., continuous improvement, self-managed, and cross-functional) and their value (Understand)

132
Q

Team basics (fundamentals)

A

Best team is 5 to 9 members. Consists of subject matter experts and stakeholders, and sometimes outsiders. Typically cross-functional to address the issues from every angle.

133
Q

Virtual team (fundamentals)

A

Virtual team is the team that uses virtual teleconferencing.
Benefits
• Higher diversity
• Smaller cost
• Realtime data sharing
Pros
• Team forming takes time
• High potential for miscommunication

134
Q

Cross functional team (fundamentals)

A

Members have different job functions and come together to develop ideas and solve problems that have cross departmental impact.

135
Q

Operational team (fundamentals)

A

Team brought together to support the organisation to perform certain function.

136
Q

Self managed team (fundamentals)

A

Team that manages supervisory tasks, scheduling, job functions and training.

137
Q

Continous improvement team (fundamentals)

A

Works directly with each member to improve (reengineer) processes

138
Q

Forming - Team (fundamentals)

A

Team members get to know each other, take pride in membership, try to please each other, agree too much, not much work is accomplished. Group is going through the honey moon.

individuals are unsure of the team’s purpose, how they fit in, and whether they’ll work well with one another. They may be anxious, curious, or excited to get going. However they feel, they’ll be looking to the team leader for direction.

Leadership – S1 - directing

139
Q

Storming - Teams (fundamentals)

A

Conflict or friction can also arise between team members as their true characters – and their preferred ways of working – surface and clash with other people’s.

At this stage team members may challenge your authority or management style, or even the team’s mission. Left unchecked, this can lead to face-to-face confrontations or simmering online tensions.

If roles and responsibilities aren’t yet clear, individuals might begin to feel overwhelmed by their workload or frustrated at a lack of progress

Leadership – S2 -> coaching

140
Q

Norming - Teams (fundamentals)

A

Conflicts resolved, agree on mutually acceptable ideas, some work gets done, team members start to trust each other.

People start to resolve their differences, appreciate one another’s strengths, and respect your authority as a leader.

Now that they know one another better, your team members will feel more comfortable asking for help and offering constructive feedback. They’ll share a stronger commitment to the team’s goals, and they should make good progress toward it.

Leadership – S3 - supporting

141
Q

Performing - Team (fundamentals)

A

Team develops ability to solve the problems. Large amount of work is accomplished.

Leadership - Delegating

142
Q

Adjourning - Teams (fundamentals)

A

Team is disbanded or changed, major changes may throw the team back to the forming stage.

143
Q

Negative team dynamics (fundamentals) (8)

A

Usually reflect organisational culture rather than individual characteristics. Usually highly impacts motivation of the team member(s).

Enable teams to fail (deadlines missed, projects not delivered on time or at all)
• Overbearing members – few individuals (mostly with higher authority) talk, others listen.
• Dominant members – dominant keep interrupting conversations, meeting becomes chaotic
• Floundering – team is losing dynamic
• Reluctant participants – no stake at teams outcome
• Unquestioned acceptance – no data but all accept
• Groupthink – no public disagreements, only private
• Rush to accomplish – incomplete data collection
• Discounting others – psychological or emotional judgements

144
Q

NGT (nominal group technique) (fundamentals) tools

A

Silent brainstorming for 10 to 15 minutes, then group members stick their ideas to the wall. Very good for sensitive topics or when some group members are really vocal. It all allows all participant to contribute. Multi-voting mostly used to evaluate the ideas.

145
Q

Brainstorming (fundamentals) tools

A

• Explain the rules – no criticising or negativism, keep open mind, no evaluation.
• Clearly define the problem (what, how, where and when – 5 min elevator pitch). Food menu for the Christmas v. Global warming.
• Let the team think about the problem.

Two states
• Creating – as much as possible, no criticism, hitchhike, wild ideas – ok.
• Evaluating – group
o Multi-voting
o Cause and effect diagram – each idea under one category

146
Q

Multi voting (fundamentals) tools

A

Consolidated ideas numbered or identified by the alphabetical order. Team members are asked to prioritise 5 or 10 items that will have significant impact on the problem.

Can be weighted (e.g. split 100 points by feeling) or non weighted (e.g. all votes are equal)

147
Q

Agenda - Communication tools

A

• used to set the topic(s) of the meetings
• define dedicated time to each topic
• List required people input
To be sent at least day ahead of the meeting, better even earlier.

148
Q

Meeting minutes - Communication tools

A

• Define discussed points
• Agree action
• Agree responsible people

149
Q

Status reports - Communication tools

A

Happen on regular intervals to report progress in the project.
• Task updates
• Schedule status update (Are we behind or ahead of schedule?)
• Budget status update (Are we under or over budget?)
• Quality/scope status update (Are we maintaining desired scope/quality levels?)
• Current or anticipated issues (e.g., changes, risks, resource issues, client satisfaction issues, vendor issues, etc.)
• Next steps

Communication within team v. communication with other teams.
Set environment for the messages. Reprimanding should always be done in private while appraisal in public. Sensitive items and conflicts always in person. Good communication is always good listening first.

150
Q

Top down communication tools

A

Executive communication on project providing instructions, communicating policies and providing feedback. Subject to distortion.

151
Q

Bottom Communication tools

A

Front line communication to the leadership. Subject to distortion.

152
Q

Horizontal communication tools

A

Suits for flat organisations and avoids management involvements. On the subjects where authorisation is required should be avoided.

153
Q

Meeting protocol Communication tools (conduction rules)

A

• Assign scribe
• Set the agenda
• Record minutes with actions
• Stick to the meeting time
• Enforce attendance

154
Q

Pareto chart Quality tools

A

Picture of how is

A Pareto Chart is a good tool to use when the process you are investigating produces data that are broken down into categories and you can count the number of times each category occurs. Categories should be wider (e.g. left LED broken v. Parts broken).

We count (i) occurrence(value) and assign (ii) weight (value to the customer or loss to the company or cost of interest etc.)

What Is a Pareto Chart?
• Bar chart arranged in descending order of height from left to right
• Bars on left relatively more important than those on right
• Separates the “vital few” from the “trivial many” (Pareto Principle)

Why Use a Pareto Chart?
• Breaks big problem into smaller pieces
• Identifies most significant factors
• Shows where to focus efforts
• Allows better use of limited resources

Pareto Charts convey information in a way that enables you to see clearly the choices that should be made, they can be used to set priorities for many practical applications in your command.

155
Q

Fishbone diagram (cause and effect) Quality tools

A

A through understanding of process inputs and outputs, and their relationship is key step to process improvement. The cause and effect diagram traditionally divides causes into several generic categories.

What Is a Cause-and-Effect Diagram?
A graphic tool that helps identify, sort, and display possible root causes of a problem or quality characteristic.

Benefits of Using a Cause-and-Effect Diagram
• Helps determine root causes
• Encourages group participation
• Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format
• Indicates possible causes of variation
• Increases process knowledge
• Identifies areas for collecting data

Step 0 – get the team who has practical and theoretical knowledge
Step 1
• Decide on the effect to examine
• Use Operational Definitions
• Phrase effect as positive (an objective) or negative (a problem)

Step 2 - Fill in the Effect Box and Draw the Spine
Step 3 - Identify Main Categories

156
Q

Flowchart building steps - Quality tools

A

A thorough understanding of process inputs and outputs, and their relationship is key step to process improvement. Defines a process as a set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs.

  1. Create boundaries of the process
  2. Determine various steps through
    a. Brainstorming
    b. Walking the process
  3. Build the sequence of the process
  4. Use appropriate mapping symbols
  5. Verify the flowchart

Flowchart shows sequence while process charts contains additional information like roles, cycle time, costs etc.

157
Q

Run chart - Quality tools

A

Movie
A line graph of data points plotted in chronological order that helps detect special causes of variation. X axis time line, Y axis variation (scale min and maximum values). Y axis runs median line for comparison

Used to identify patterns in process data. Enables to apply statistical tests that can be performed to detect any nonrandom behaviour. Run charts can detect trends, oscillations, mixtures and clustering.

This chart is an extremely powerful tool for showing how stable a process is behaving.

Why Use Run Charts?
• Understand process variation
• Analyse data for patterns
• Monitor process performance
• Communicate process performance

158
Q

Check sheet and methodology - Quality tools

A

Movie
Used to observe or review a process, usually during execution of the process. Check sheets pre-categorise potential outcomes for data collection using sets of words, tally lists, or graphics.

Goal – find patterns or trends
Check sheets are basis for other analytic tools.
Check sheets help to focus on continuous improvement

• Identify and agree to the causes or conditions that are to be collected
• Decide who will collect the data, over what time period and how the data will be collected
• Create check sheet that will work within the operation where it will be used.
• Collect the data as designed to ensure consistency and accuracy of the information

159
Q

Process behaviour charts / Control charts - Quality tools

A

Movie
Part of green belt

160
Q

Scatter diagram - Quality tools

A

Shows relationships between two variables (cause and effect). The plot pattern indicates whether there is positive or negative correlation.

Independent variable sits on one axis, while dependent on the other.

Positive correlation does not mean there is cause and effect (causation v correlation)

To establish cause and effect two tools are used Pearson correlation -1 <= r <=1 and Coefficient of Determination r2

161
Q

Histogram - Quality tools

A

Picture
• A bar graph that shows the distribution of data
• A snapshot of data taken from a process

When Are Histograms Used?
• Summarise large data sets graphically
• Compare measurements to specifications
• Communicate information to the team
• Assist in decision making

There are specific rules how histograms are made
• Count items
• Tally items
• Find the range of the values
• Find the step size

162
Q

Deffect per unit - Quality metrics

A

Number of the effects divided by number of units per defined time

163
Q

Defects per million opportunities (DPMO) - Quality metrics

A

DPO = DPU / number of opportunities
Opportunity is number of different ways the defect can occur
DPO x 106 = DPMO

Middleview Brake Pads Inc. produces millions of brake pads for a variety of vehicles each year. Recently, customers began reporting to their mechanics that their new brakes feel softer than usual, and mechanics informed Middleview that their inspection of the pads noted unusual dents. Middleview began a process improvement audit to discover the extent of the issue by using a sample of 1,000 brake pads.

Their investigation found there were six opportunities for the dents to occur throughout the production process because of different machines being used. The audit turned up 450 pads with abnormal dents in the sample among the company’s manufacturing plants. Using the formula, the company calculated that there were 75,000 opportunities for their brake pads to have abnormal dents. The company issued a recall to correct the problem nationwide:

[450 / (1,000 x 6)] x 1,000,000 = 75,000

164
Q

Rolled throughput yield (RTY) and (FTY) - Quality metrics

A

FTY and RTY are different in a way that RTY takes rework into the equation what FTY does not.

As items travel through the process each process produces DPU. In FTY we multiply DPU of all steps to get final quality indicator, with RTY we always add rework/scrap on each step.

(Number of units entering - (scrap + rework)/number of units entering process.

There is also other way of calculation

FPY (FTY) = 1-(#defective/#units)

RTY = e-dpu (e fixed value)

165
Q

Cycle time - Quality metrics

A

The cycle time is the amount of time it takes to complete a specific task from start to finish.

166
Q

Cost of poor quality (COPQ) - Quality metrics

A

Tool that should be used to report how quality levels are being sustained within organisation for the products or services shipped to the customers. The idea is to find out what is total cost to provide your customers with products and services.

167
Q

Total cost of quality - Quality metrics

A

Only costs related to provision of products or services are calculated.

COQ = cost of conformance(prevention costs + appraisal costs) + cost of non conformance(internal + external failure)

168
Q

Prevention costs - Quality metrics

A

Prevention costs support activities whose purpose is to reduce/eliminate the number of defects. E.g. quality planning, new-product review, process planning, process control, etc.

169
Q

Appraisal costs - Quality metrics

A

Appraisal costs are all those costs incurred to ensure/appraise that the processes are right as per standards. E.g. final inspection and test, document review, product quality audits

170
Q

Internal failure costs - Quality metrics

A

Internal failure costs occurs when results of work fail to reach designated quality standards , and are detected before transfer to the customer takes place. E.g. scrap, rework, reinspection.

171
Q

External failure costs - Quality metrics

A

External failure costs occur when the product or service from a process fails to reach designated quality standards, and is not detected until after transfer to the customer. E.g. customer return, warranty charges and sim.

172
Q

Voice of customer - Project ID - Define - Phases - definition

A

Before any project it is important to identify who is the customer of the project.

Many methods of collecting customer opinion about the product or services supplied.

Customers can be internal and external.

External customers
• Direct
• Anyone else on the social responsibility list

Internal customers
Employees, managers, etc.

VoC is the abilities to determine
• the requirements, needs, expectations and preferences of the customers and markets.
• key factors that lead to the customer
o Acquisition
o Satisfaction
o Loyalty
o Retention

173
Q

Voice of customer - Project ID - Define - Phases tools - tools

A

Surveys, questionnaires, focus groups, observation.

174
Q

Quality function deployment (house of quality) - Project ID - Define - Phases tools

A

Left – customer requirements
Up – technical requirements
Middle – relationship matrix
Right – comparison with the competition (how customer perceives it)
Botton - comparison with competition

175
Q

CTQ – critical to quality - Project ID - Define - Phases tools

A

Critical to quality are factors established from VoC that contribute to the development of the products or services that create customer value.

CTQ is established by converting customer need to the drivers and requirements

Customer Need
• Driver
o Requirement
o Requirement 1
• Driver 2
o Requirement

176
Q

Project selection - Define - Phases tools

A

• Gather data on as is
• Team defines problem
• Team defines criteria for project selection. Key criteria relates to organisation goals e.g. ROI, profit, expect profit (EP)
• Projects with the highest return on bottom line get priority
• however best projects are ones that can be staffed and budgeted!!!

EP = Profit x Probability

Systems approach – organisation operates as a system of processes, sub-optimisation happens when one improvement damages remaining systems
e.g. resources of project A should be better invested into the project B

Other tools could be QFD or advanced quality planning.

Project selection criteria should be established by the champions and key executives.

177
Q

Participation matrix - Project selection - Define - Phases tools

A

Information about what role person plays – influence, importance,

178
Q

Stakeholder analysis - Project selection - Define - Phases tools

A

Identify end users, subject matter experts, process owners, and other people or factors that will influence the project. (Understand)

Exercise to identify stakeholders. Done in brainstorming session. X – axis power, Y - axis interest.

Influence (y axis) Importance (x axis)
Keep satisfied Key player
Minimal effort Keep informed

e.g.
• Executive -
• Sponsor – someone from executive level responsible for finances and overcoming barriers.
• Individual contributor – subject matter expert.
• Process owner -person responsible execution, implementation, maintenance and improvement of the process.. Varies on the level of the process improvement objectives.
• Process operator
• Process customers
• Process suppliers
• Maintenance personnel
• Others impacted

179
Q

SIPOC - Project selection - Define - Phases tools

A
  1. Identify the outputs – including data, services, products, information, records, waste, etc.
  2. Define the process part – max 7 steps.
  3. For each output identify inputs
  4. Id external and internal customers
  5. Id external and internal suppliers
180
Q

Project charter - Define - Phases tools

A

Charter is the document stating project purpose
• Problem statement – what needs to be improved
• Purpose – goals and objectives
• Benefits – states what will change for better
• Scope – sets project limits – what is (i) in the scope and what is (ii) out of the scope. Use tools to set the scope, SIPOC, Paretto, problem statement.
• Results – Criteria and metrics for project success e.g. % work accomplished on time, % of work accomplished on budget, availability of resources, quality of key deliverables. It is essential to track the data asap to benchmark the improvements, general KPI. The idea is to understand what needs to be improved.
• Tools – GANNT, CPM, PERT.
• Documentation
o Goals and objectives
o Project sponsors and stakeholders
o Project plans and schedules
o Key project milestones
o Project budget
o Project boundaries
o Roles and responsibilities
o List of deliverables
o Metrics

181
Q

Communication plan - Define - Phases tools

A
182
Q

Project planning - Define - Phases tools

A

Project planning is a disciplined approach to monitoring how and when a project will be accomplished.

Effective project planning requires skills in
• Information processing
• Communication plan- inform and change behaviour
• Resource negotiation
• Securing commitments
• Incremental and modular planning
• Assuring measurable milestones
• Facilitating top management involvement

183
Q

GANNT - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

‘Display project key activities and duration. After they are shown, they are marked in the calendar.

184
Q

WBS - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

Work breakdown structure is us used to break down large items into the small pieces. A chart that shows how tasks relate to each other and also it shows scheduling and timing e.g.
1. Build a house
a. Frame – 5 days
i. Wood
ii. Nails
b. Electricity – 7 days
c. Plumbing

185
Q

Activity network diagram - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

An Activity Network Diagram is a diagram of project activities that shows the sequential relationships of activities using arrows and nodes. An activity network diagram tool is used extensively in and is necessary for the identification of a project’s critical path (which is used to determine the expected completion time of the project).

AND is all possible paths while CPM is longest path

186
Q

Affinity diagrams - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

Affinity diagrams are used to produce many possible answers to the an open ended question such as why workload is so high? Sticky notes are produced and then arranged into 5 to 10 groups.

187
Q

Matrix diagrams - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

Problem solving tool that shows relationship between two or more groups of items. L-shape, X-shape, Y-shape, A-shape

188
Q

PERT and CPM - Project management - Define - Phases tools

A

CPM (critical path method) is the path from start to finish that requires most time. If activities on the critical path are delayed everything else will be delayed.

Calculate the earliest times each task can start and finish, based on how long preceding tasks take. (ES, EF) Start with the first task

Calculate the latest times each task can start and finish without upsetting the project schedule, based on how long later tasks will take. Start from the last task.

189
Q

Mean - Measure - Phases

A

Arithmetic mean of all the numbers aka average

190
Q

Median - Measure - Phases

A

Number in the middle of the array

191
Q

Mode - Measure - Phases

A

Most repeated value in the array

192
Q

Range - Measure - Phases

A

The difference between highest and lowest number

193
Q

Standard Deviation - Measure - Phases

A

the standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values

• First we calculate the mean of the array
• Subtract the mean from each number in the array and square the result. This way new array is created
• Find the mean of all squared results
• Sum all the results and divide by the count of the array for population or count-1 for the sample
• Variance is the result of the previous step
• Square root the result

194
Q

Data collection plan - Measure - Phases - tools 8 steps

A

It is a detailed document that describes the exact steps as well as the sequence that needs to be followed in gathering the data.

SIPOC is a great way to start building data collection plan.

Many organisations tend to collect more data than required. Use 5W1H – What, Where, Who, When, Why and How to plan the data collection. If possible use realtime data acquisition. When no realtime data available there can be large lag between error and decision to fix it.

1) Identify the questions that you want to answer
Our data must be relevant to the project. The entire reason to have a DMAIC project is to improve a process. Hence, these questions should be centred on what the reality of our process is under the current state of affairs or status quo. The best practice is to use the SIPOC diagram as a guide for data collection. We also need to figure out the type of measurements or metrics we want to include.
2) Determine the kind of data that is available
The second step in creating a Data Collection Plan is to find out what kind of data is available to collect. What data exists that can give us all the required answers? Sometimes, a particular piece of data can give us multiple answers. Make sure that you make a list of all of the data points that are needed to answer the questions the project is centred on.
3) Determine how much data is needed
The third step in creating a Data Collection Plan is to decide how much data we need. We want to get enough data so that we can see patterns and trends. For each data element on the list, write down how much data is actually needed.
4) Determine how to measure the data
The fourth step in creating a data collection plan is to see how we are going to measure the data. As we all know, data can be measured in different ways: check sheets, survey answers, etc. The way we measure will be dependent upon the type of data we seek.
5) Decide who is going to gather data
The fifth step in creating a data collection plan is to decide who is going to collect the data. Nowadays, the data can also be collected through automated software. We may be required to liaise with the person in charge of the software to ensure the data is available and in the correct format.
6) Determine where the data will be collected from
The sixth step is to check where to collect the data from. It means deciding on the location and/or source of data. The location does not mean any physical location. It is the location within the process. The data collection plan must explicitly specify where in the process data must be collected from.
7) Decide whether to measure a sample or the whole population
The seventh step is to decide whether to sample the data or not. Sometimes it is impractical to measure an entire population of data. In such a case, we then take a sample of data. The question that the project team needs to look into could be: What should be our sampling method and sample size be to make statistically-sound judgments?
8) Determine in what format the data will be displayed
The eighth step is to decide the format of displaying the data. We can display data in many ways such as Pareto Diagrams, Scatter Diagram, etc.

195
Q

Qualitative - Data types - Measure - Phases

A

Data is about attributes(nominal) – colour, material, sex, etc.

196
Q

Quantitative - Data types - Measure - Phases

A

Measurable data in numbers – size, weight, temperature, and similar
2 categories:
• Continuous (variables) - used for measurements on scale e.g. temperature
o Interval – interval between scale values
o Ratio – there is a rational 0 point for the scale
o Ordinal – has some sort of order e.g. NPS survey
• Discrete – counting the occurrence of events

There should be constant movement from discrete to continuous scale because it enables us to predict errors that are not possible to predict on the discrete scale.

197
Q

Survey interview - Data collection - Measure - Phases

A

Documents containing lists of questions with the predefined or open answers. They can be undertaken over the distance or face to face. They provide high accuracy data and high response rate.

198
Q

Check sheets - Data collection - Measure - Phases

A

Used to observe the process during the execution. They have pre-categorised potential outcomes using set of words, tally, lists or graphics. Check-sheets are used to organise facts in a manner that will facilitate the effective collection of useful data about a potential quality problem. They are especially useful for gathering data of attributes while performing inspections to identify defects.

199
Q

Check lists - Data collection - Measure - Phases

A

checklist is a tool that is used to verify whether a set of required steps has been performed or not.
Quality checklist is a tool that helps verify.
• whether a required action has taken place or not
• whether a required item has been included or not.

200
Q

Measles chart - Data collection - Measure - Phases

A

Used to select location on the map (e.g. damages of the part, or location of the sales)

201
Q

Other data collection techniques - Data collection - Measure - Phases

A

• Face-to-face interviews
• Focus groups – most accurate
• Mystery shopping
• Customer feedback
• Automatic data capture
• Manual data capture

202
Q

MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Measurement System Analysis is an area of statistical study that explores the variation in measurement data using various metrics. TO reduce the variation measurement system should be one of the first elements to be analysed. It is not uncommon for measurement system to have an error of 40 to 50% of the process specification. MSA is acceptable when it contributes to less than 10% of variation

203
Q

Precision - MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Closeness of repeated readings to each other.

204
Q

Accuracy - MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Closeness to the true value or accepted value.

205
Q

Bias (location) - MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Difference between absolute value and true value. Bias with respect to a standard master at various measurement points of the measuring range. Is an estimate of the error in the measurement system. Bias is estimated by taking repeat samples of a part or standard using the measurement system, and comparing the average of these measurements with a measurement taken of the same piece using equipment with higher accuracy

206
Q

Linearity (location) - MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Change in bias over the operating range of the instrument e.g. measurement instrument loses accuracy because of heavy useage

207
Q

Stability (location) - MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Drift in absolute values overtime.

208
Q

Gauge repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R)
- MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Is used to validate the measurement system. Gage repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R) is defined as the process used to evaluate a gauging instrument’s accuracy by ensuring its measurements are repeatable and reproducible. The process includes taking a series of measurements to certify that the output is the same value as the input, and that the same measurements are obtained under the same operating conditions over a set duration.

GR&R are used to discover the variability in the production using repeatability and reproducibility.

209
Q

Repeatability (width) - Gauge repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R)
- MSA - Measure - Phases MSA - Measure - Phases

A

Equipment measurement variation expressed as standard deviation. Measurements are taken from the same equipment by one appraiser over a short period of time.

210
Q

Reproducibility (spread) - Gauge repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R)
- MSA - Measure - Phases MSA - Measure - Phases

A

appraisers measurement variation expressed as standard deviation. Measurements are taken from the same equipment by more that one appraiser.

211
Q

Define how 5S and value analysis can be used to identify and eliminate waste - 5S (lean) tools

A

• Foundation for other quality techniques
• Reduced accidents
• Increased compliance
• Waste is easy to id and eliminate
• Quality is improved

212
Q

Sort (5S) (lean) tools

A

Review all items or materials in the workspace. Remove unneeded items. By eliminating unneeded items costs, time and employee frustration is removed. Used to inventory the territory and remove waste.

213
Q

Straighten (5S) (lean) tools

A

Create easy to use location for everything necessary for the work. The idea is to have workspace that anyone can use e.g. in computer all icons are in the same location

214
Q

Shine - (5S) (lean) tools

A

Keep workplace neat and clean. Put all items into the places.

215
Q

Standardise - (5S) (lean) tools

A

Keep the progress achieved in all previous phases by keeping high standards and orderliness.

216
Q

Sustain - (5S) (lean) tools

A

5S only works if everyone on the team is committed. Employees must follow the standards and sustain order.

217
Q

FMEA - Analyse - Phases - tools

A

FMEA is the study of risk that might happen. FMEA tool can be applied in any stage from Define to Analyse. FMEA uses systematic data and team input for root cause analysis. FMEA should be used when teams require more detailed information about inputs and possible fail-points. Main difference form SIPOC is that FMEA provides evaluation because it used with 5 whys analysis.

Has to be documented and revised, linked to the QFD and house of quality.

FMEA example
Create spreadsheet with following columns
1. Process step(input, activity) – measure
2. Potential failure – measure
3. Potential failure effect to customer – measure
4. SEV (severity) – measure
5. Potential cause of failure – measure
6. OCC (probability) – measure
7. Current monitor/control – measure
8. DET (event) – measure
9. RPN – measure
10. Recommended changes/actions – improve
11. Who and when? – improve
12. Action completed – improve
13. SEV – improve
14. DET – improve
15. RPN – improve

218
Q

8D approach - Analyse - Phases - tools

A

• Use team approach
• Describe the problem
• Start and check interim actions
• Define and check root causes
• Check corrective action
• Start permanent corrective action
• Stop future problems
• Congratulate the team

8D relates to PDSA through corrective action steps.

219
Q

Root cause analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

What is often a problem is really a failure mode or symptom reflecting the output from a failed process. The root cause therefore lies in the input or the process itself.

The purpose of the methodology is to discover the root cause and eliminate it. It is part of continuous improvement cycle. Steps
1. Define and document the problem
2. Understand the problem
3. Collect and analyse the data
4. Determine root cause
5. Establish a corrective action plan
6. Implement the corrective action plan
7. Evaluate to demonstrate that the root cause of the problem was eliminated

Tools – 8D, 5 Why’s, DMAIC, FMEA, Cause and Effect diagram.

220
Q

Binomial distribution - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Used to model discrete data. E.g. defects in parts or quotes.
Binomial distribution should be applied in situations where each part has two states:
• Good or bad
• Accept or reject
• Conformance or nonconformance
• Success or failure

Discrete data (finite number of events) should be more than 50 (N >50) and sample size is less than 10% of population n < 0.1*N.

221
Q

Normal distribution - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Used to model continuous data(infinite number of events) e.g. length, time, mass. The standard normal distribution has mean of 0 and standard deviation of

222
Q

Special causes variation - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

unusual events that operator can remove aka assignable causes. Unless all causes are mitigated process will be unpredictably influenced, with random results

223
Q

Common causes variation - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Inheritable process variations that operators cannot control, aka natural variation

224
Q

Correlation - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Correlation does not mean causation.
Correlation is finding a relationship between two or more sets of data. It measures strength and direction of the relationships between variables. To find correlation one needs independent variable (x) and dependent variable (y) e.g. hours studied(x), exam grade (y).

Correlation is shown by the scatter plot diagram. x goes on horizontal axis, while y goes on vertical.

Correlation coefficient r is on scale from -1(negative) to 1(positive). If coefficient is close to 0 it means that there is no correlation.

225
Q

Simple Regression - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Regression analysis allows to create a model that helps you to predict how one variable might behave given changes in the other variable. It is expressed as r2 and is a value between 0 to 1. The number tells about the strength of linear relationship between 2 variables.

Simple regresion is donw after the correlation (r) is established

226
Q

Hypothesis testing - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter e.g. average adult drinks 1.7 cups of coffee per day. Statements may be either true or untrue. Hypothesis testing allows to make statistical conclusions about accepting or not accepting such a statements.

Covers 3 basic categories
• Testing whether the data you have fits data model
• Comparing a statistic to a hypothesis about the data or population
• Answering question whether something has changed within the data

All hypothesis tests have both a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis

227
Q

Null hypothesis - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Null hypothesis is believed to be true unless there is overwhelming evidence to the contrary e.g. not guilty until proven guilty. It can be rejected or fail to be rejected but it cannot be accepted because of lack of the evidence to reject it.

228
Q

An alternative hypothesis - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Alternative hypothesis represents the opposite of the null hypothesis and holds true if the null hypothesis is found to be false.

229
Q

Type I error - Hypothesis testing - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Type I (alpha) error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is actually true. E.g. products are good but marked defective. / producer risk

230
Q

Type II error - Hypothesis testing - Data Analysis - Analyse - Phases

A

Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it actually should have been rejected e.g. products are defective but marked as good.

231
Q

Kaizen - Improve Phases (lean)

A

Has two roles – educate and improve.

Kaizen is incremental continuous improvement of non-value added activities in the process. This cover cover small, easy, low risk and low cost improvements.

It enables quick progression through idea generation, testing and evaluation. This also enables quick employee learning.

This also replaces large projects with smaller more frequent activities.

All process members should be trained in Kaizen and Lean.

232
Q

Kaizen blitz - Improve Phases (lean)

A

Cross functional Kaizen event to accelerate Kaizen pace and reduce duration. Main difference between Kaizen is the speed at which all is being done.

233
Q

PDCA - Improve Phases (lean)

A

Plan
85% of cost is determined at the planning stage. This is the prmost complicated stage. Here problem is defined, causes determined and solutions selected.

Do
Implement a solution.

Check (Study)
Evaluate the results. Study appeared latter as continuous inspection of the results rather than reactive approach.

Act
Return to the plan step if the results are unsatisfactory.

234
Q

Cost-benefit analysis - Improve Phases

A

Costs of implementing solution v benefits from expected solution.

Cost consist of e.g. sw development, purchasing resources, building buildings, while benefits – increase in product margin, revenue, cost saving, staff morale, customer retention. This should be handled by the accountant.

Cost-benefit analysis can also be know and cost of quality. General tool to report how quality levels are sustained on the shop floor.

235
Q

Control plan - Improve Phases tools

A

Demming – 80% of the real issue are in the system and not the people. SDCA / PDSA incorporates control in the planning.

The purpose of control pan is to help the process owner and business team track and respond to key performance indicators so that the process remains improved (how to control the process workflow). The control plan should be concise document that tells when to monitor, how to monitor, what range of data is acceptable etc.

Control plans provide structured approach for the design, selection and implementation for the value added control methods in the total system.

236
Q

Control charts (X) - Improve Phases tools

A

Control charts are good addition to the control plan and enable team to know when to act.

X control chart
X control chart is the simplest form of control. Demonstrates how process average changes along with the corresponding changes in process variation. We should control average and variation.

On the chart x represents average of the data points, which chart has 3 zones that represent 1(median+1sDev) , 2 and 3 standard deviations from the median in either direction. There are 8 tests that tell someone if the process is out of control.
1. 1 point appears outside of the upper or lower control limits – major problem
2. 9 points in a row appear on one side of the centre line – change occurred in the process
3. 6 points increase or decrease in the row – process less efficient or more errors
4. 14 points alternate between up and down – high variation
5. 2 out of 3 in a row control points are in the zone 3 – special cause indicating high variation
6. 4 out of 5 in a row are in zone 2 or beyond – major cause or shift problem.
7. 15 points in a row are in zone 1 – review limits.
8. 8 points in a row are in zones 2 or 3 – issue with the process or team.

237
Q

Control charts (X-R) - Improve Phases tools

A

Control charts are good addition to the control plan and enable team to know when to act.

We control average (X) and Range (R). We determine upper and lower average and range for given measurement period.

238
Q

Process control v process capability - Improve Phases tools

A

Controlled process is one that does not have variation, capable process is one that meets customer expectations.

Process capability can be calculated by dividing sigma level on 3. Process capability of 1.33 represents 4 level of sigma which is minimal level at which customers will be satisfied.

239
Q

Document control - Improve Phases

A
240
Q

House of (lean)

A

We enter the house through value stream mapping
Foundation of the house is change management
Roof of the house is Kaizen

Principles
Pull / Kanban
Cellular flow
Total productive maintenance
Quality at the source
Point-of-use-storage
Quick changeover
Standardised work
Batch size reduction
Team
5S
Visual controls
Steam-lined layout

241
Q

Force Field analysis

A

technique for analyzing what aids or hinders an organization in reaching an objective.

An arrow pointing to an objective is drawn down the middle of a piece of paper. The factors that will aid the objective’s achievement, called the driving forces, are listed on the left side of the arrow.

The factors that will hinder its achievement, called the restraining forces, are listed on the right side of the arrow

242
Q

Cause-and-effect diagram

A

A tool for analyzing process dispersion. It is also referred to as the “Ishikawa diagram,” because Kaoru Ishikawa developed it, and the “fishbone diagram,” because the completed diagram resembles a fish skeleton.

The diagram illustrates the main causes and subcauses leading to an effect (symptom). The cause-and-effect diagram is one of the “seven tools of quality.

243
Q

Statistical process cotrol

A

The application of statistical techniques to control a process; often used interchangeably with the term statistical quality control.

244
Q

Fault tree analysis

A

Failure analysis in which an undesired state of a system is examined. This analysis method is mainly used in safety engineering and reliability engineering to understand how systems can fail, to identify the best ways to reduce risk and to determine (or get a feeling for) event rates of a safety accident or a particular system level (functional) failure

245
Q

Value analysis

A

Value analysis is an important part of ensuring that a product or service meets customer demands, while also minimizing waste and cost.

Through value analysis, businesses can better understand what their customers want, while also making sure they are providing the most cost-effective solution possible.

246
Q

Statistical quality control

A

The application of statistical techniques to control quality. Often used interchangeably with the term statistical process control, although statistical quality control includes acceptance sampling, which statistical process control does not.

247
Q

Sample standard deviation chart (s-chart)

A

A control chart in which the subgroup standard deviation s is used to evaluate the stability of the variability within a process.

Control chart which demonstrates st.d variation in the process

248
Q

Box plot

A

is a method for graphically demonstrating the locality, spread and skewness groups of numerical data through their quartiles.

In addition to the box on a box plot, there can be lines (which are called whiskers) extending from the box indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles, thus, the plot is also termed as the box-and-whisker plot and the box-and-whisker diagram.

249
Q

PDCA

A

Plan
Determine goals.
Determine methods

Do
Educate, Implement, Document, begin data analysis

Check
Complete data analysis.
Summarize what was learned

Act
Take appropriate action. What change need to be made.

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