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A level Psychology > AS Research Methods > Flashcards

AS Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an Aim?

A

A statement of what the researcher intends to investigate (purpose of the study).

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2
Q

What is a Hypothesis?

A

A testable statement that states the relationship between variables that are being investigated.

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3
Q

What is a Directional Hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that states a clear difference between two conditions.

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4
Q

What is a Non- directional hypothesis?

A

A hypothesis that states a difference between the two variables but does not state the direction.

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5
Q

What is an Independent variable?

A

A variable that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally, so the DV can be measured.

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6
Q

What is a Dependent variable?

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Causes should be down to the change in the IV.

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7
Q

What does Operationalisation mean?

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

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8
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled.

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9
Q

What are confounding variables?

A

Any variable other than the IV, that may have affected the DV, so we cannot be sure of the true source of the changes to the DV.

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10
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may reveal the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to the ppt changing their behaviour within the research.

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11
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome. Eg. design of study, leading q’s.

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12
Q

What is Randomisation?

A

The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of conditions.

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13
Q

What is Standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all ppts in a research study.

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14
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A

Ppts are allocated to different groups, where each group represents a different experimental condition.

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15
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

All ppts take part in all conditions of the experiment.

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16
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

Pairs of ppts are matched on some variables that are the same that may effect the DV, eg. Age. Then one of each pair is assigned to condition A and the other B.

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17
Q

What is random allocation?

A

Ensures that each ppt has the same chance of being in one condition as any other. Attempts to control for ppt variables in independent groups design.

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18
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

Attempt to control the effects of order in a repeated measures design. Half of ppts experience conditions in one order and the other half in another order. ABBA.

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19
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

Experiments conducted in highly controlled environments. Research conducted in an artificial setting, and researcher manipulates the IV.

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20
Q

What are the strengths of Lab experiments?

A

High control over extraneous variables- so any effect on the DV must be down to manipulation of IV.
High internal validity
High replicability- well controlled so can be repeated as new extraneous v. will not be introduced.

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21
Q

What are the limitations of Lab experiments?

A

Lack generalisability- lab setting is artificial and not like everyday life. In an unfamiliar context ppts may act in a more unusual way.
Low external V- cannot be generalised beyond the research setting.
Demand Charac- ppts know they are being tested on in a lab experiment and so may arise ‘unnatural behaviour’
Lacks mundane realism- carrying out a lab experiment may not represent real-life experience.

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22
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV.

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23
Q

What are the strengths of field experiments?

A

Higher mundane realism- env. is more natural

High external validity- ppts may be unaware they are being studied.

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24
Q

What are the limitations of field experiments?

A

Loss of control of extraneous variables- cause and effect of IV and DV may be harder to establish.
Ethical issues- if ppts are unaware they are being studied, they are unable to give consent to the study, so is an invasion of privacy.

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25
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

An experiment where the change in the IV is not due to the researcher but would of happened even if the researcher wasn’t there.

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26
Q

What are the strengths of natural experiments?

A

High external validity- they involve the study of real-life issues as the happen.

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27
Q

What are the limitations of natural experiments?

A

Ppts may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, so researcher might be less sure whether the IV affected the DV.

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28
Q

What is a Quasi experiment?

A

The IV is based around pre-existing differences between people, eg. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it just exists.

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29
Q

What are the strengths of Quasi experiments?

A

Usually carried out under controlled conditions
High internal validity
High replicability
High control over extraneous variables.

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30
Q

What are the limitations of Quasi experiments?

A

There may be confounding variables- cannot randomly allocate ppts to condtions.

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31
Q

What is random sampling?

A

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. Sample is generated from some sort of lottery method.

32
Q

What are the evaluation points for random sampling?

A

Free from researcher bias- Researcher has no influence over who is selected.
Time consuming& difficult to conduct

33
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

when every Nth member of the target population is selected.

34
Q

What are the evaluation points for systematic sampling?

A

Free from researcher bias- once system is selected, th researcher has no influence on who is selected.
Fairly representative.

35
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in the wider population.

36
Q

What are the evaluation points for stratified sampling?

A

Free from researcher bias- once target population has been sub-divided, ppts are then randomly selected.
Representative sample- Accurately reflects the composition of the population.

37
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Researchers select anyone who is willing and available to take part in the research study. Researcher takes the time to ask whoever is around at the time of their study, eg. market research.

38
Q

What are the evaluation points for opportunity sampling?

A

Convenient- saves time and effort and is less costly for researcher.
Unrepresentative.

39
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Ppts selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self selection). eg. from adverts in newspapers.

40
Q

What are the evaluation points for volunteer sampling?

A

Volunteer Bias- May attract a certain ‘profile’ of person , one which is ‘helpful’, ‘keen’ and ‘curious’.

41
Q

What are Ethical issues?

A

Conflicts between the rights of the ppts in research studies and the goals of the research to produce worthwhile data.

42
Q

Informed consent- what is it?

A

Ppts should know what they are getting into before they get into it. Informed consent involves making sure the ppts knows the aims& procedures of the research, and their right to withdraw.

43
Q

Deception- what is it?

A

Deliberately misleading or withholding information from the ppts at any stage of the investigation.

44
Q

Protection from harm- what is it?

A

Ppts should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm. Right to withdraw is emphasised.

45
Q

Privacy and confidentiality- what is it?

A

Privacy relates to ppts having the right to control information about themselves. If this is invaded then confidentiality should be in place. Confidentiality is our right to have any personal data protected.

46
Q

Ways of dealing with Informed consent?

A

Consent letter- detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate.

47
Q

Ways of dealing with deception and protection from harm?

A

Debriefing- ppts are made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any other details which were withdrawn beforehand.
Ppts have the right to withdraw their data
Counselling

48
Q

Ways of dealing with confidentiality?

A

Common to maintain anonymity- researchers refer to ppts using numers or initials to protect personal details.

49
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale trial run of the investigation, which allows the investigator to identify any potential issues with the design in order to modify it or the procedure.

50
Q

What is a single- blind procedure?

A

Investigation where ppts will not be told the aim of the research at the beginning of the study. Other details may also be kept from them, like the condition of the experiment they are in. The researcher however, is aware of all of this.

51
Q

What is a double- blind procedure?

A

Neither the ppts or the researcher are aware of the aims of the investigation.
Often an important feature of drug trials (Placebos).

52
Q

What is a control group/ condition?

A

A group used to refer to setting a ‘baseline’ of the experiment or for the purpose of comparison.

53
Q

Naturalistic observation- what is it?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary.

54
Q

Controlled observation- what is it?

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, where some variables may be managed. eg. Ainsworth’s strange situation.

55
Q

Covert observation- what is it?

A

Ppts’ behaviour is watched and recorded WITHOUT their knowledge or consent. They are unaware they are the focus of the study.

56
Q

Overt observation- what is it?

A

Ppts’ behaviour is watched and recorded WITH their knowledge and consent. They have given informed consent beforehand.

57
Q

Participant observation- what is it?

A

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded.

58
Q

Non- participant observation- what is it?

A

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded.

59
Q

What are the evaluation points for naturalistic observations?

A

High external validity- findings can often be generalised to everyday life, as behaviour is studied in the environment in which it would normally occur.
Lack of control over extraneous variables- make it difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour.

60
Q

What are the evaluation points for controlled observations?

A

Cannot be as easily applied to real-life settings.

Replication is easier- extraneous variables less of a factor.

61
Q

What are the evaluation points for covert observations?

A

Increases validity of data found- as ppts do not know they are being observed, their behaviour will be more natural.
Ethical Issues- lack of informed consent.

62
Q

What are the evaluation points for overt observations?

A

Demand Characteristics- ppts know they are being watched so this may affect the way they behave.

63
Q

What are behavioural categories?

A

Target behaviours to be studied should be precisely defined and made observable and measurable. Sometimes referred to as a behaviour checklist.
eg ‘affection’ can be broken down to hugging, kissing.

64
Q

Sampling methods- What is event sampling?

A

A target behaviour or event is first established and then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.

65
Q

What is Time sampling?

A

A target individual or group is first established and then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, eg. every 60 seconds.

66
Q

What is Inter- observer reliability?

A

Observations should be carried out by at least 2 observers to ensure no important details are missed. Observers should familiarise themselves with beh. categories, then observe behaviour at the same time. Data recorded is then compared and analysed.

67
Q

How is Inter- observer reliability calculated?

A

Correlating each pair of observations made, so an overall figure is produced.

68
Q

Self report techniques- Questionnaire, what is it?

A

A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.

69
Q

Open and closed questions- what are they?

A

An open question does not have a fixed range of answers and ppts are free to answer in any way they wish. Tend to produce qualitative data.
Closed questions offer a fixed number of responses, ‘yes or no’ answers or ‘1 -10’ scales. Produce numerical data by limiting answers they can give. Quantitative data.

70
Q

What are the strengths of a Questionnaire?

A

Cost Effective- gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed widely.
Doesn’t involve researcher being there, and is easier to analyse the data from questions.

71
Q

What are the limitations of a Questionnaire?

A

Responses may not be truthful- respondents may be keen to present themselves positively. “Social desirability bias”
Produce a response bias- respondents often just answer in a similar way, eg. always ticking ‘yes’ to get it out of the way.

72
Q

Self report techniques- Interview, what is it?

A

A face- to- face interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks a set of questions to assess the interviewee’s thoughts or experiences.

73
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

Made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order.

74
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

Works like a conversation. There are no set questions. There are just general aims to cover certain topics, the interviewee is encouraged to expand their responses by prompts by the interviewer.

75
Q

What can be used to evaluate structured interviews?

A

Easy to replicate- due to their standardised format.

76
Q

What can be used to evaluate unstructured interviews?

A

More flexibility- much more likely to gain an insight into the worldview of the interview.
Analysis of data much more difficult- researcher has to sift through much more information which may be irrelevant.

A level Psychology (5 decks)

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