A2 Research Methods

Question 1

What is the definition of Correlation coefficient?

Answer 1

A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables.

Question 2

+1 represents a perfect…

Answer 2

Positive correlation.

Question 3

-1 represents a perfect…

Answer 3

Negative correlation.

Question 4

What is a case study?

Answer 4

An in-depth investigation and analysis of a single individual, group or event. May take place over a long period of time (longitudinal study) and require additional information from others.

Question 5

What is content analysis?

Answer 5

A type of observational research in which people are studied indirectly by examining communications that they produce eg. in texts or other media. With an aim to summarise this information in a systematic way so conclusions can be made.

Question 6

What is Coding?

Answer 6

Categorising large amounts of information into meaningful units. The communication to be studied is analysed by identifying meaningful units eg. how many times a particular word appears in a text.

Question 7

What does content analysis do to the type of data produced?

Answer 7

Turns qualitative data into quantitative data.

Question 8

What is thematic analysis?

Answer 8

A qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit themes within the data.

Question 9

What does thematic analysis do to the type of data produced?

Answer 9

Maintains qualitative data in its original form.

Question 10

How do you conduct content analysis?

Answer 10

1. Familiarise yourself with the material.
2. Categorise information into meaningful units by identifying common themes.
3. Tally how many times these themes occur.
4. Draw conclusions

Question 11

How do you conduct thematic analysis?

Answer 11

1. Researcher repeatedly reviews material to identify common trends. Themes (ideas which are reoccurring) are then identified.
2. Themes are then re-analysed to become more refined and relevant, then given short hand codes.
3. Researcher then annotates the material with short hand codes identified.
4. Researcher then collects a new set of data to test the validity of the themes identified.

Question 12

Evaluating content analysis…

Answer 12

1. Conclusions may not be representative- Key info may be missed out as they may not come under any of the categories identified so will be left out of the analysis.
2. Subjective- people may analyse things differently.
3. Content analysis usually involves data which is quite public, so we can get away with analysing data for content analysis as its under the public eye so does not need consent.

Question 13

What is reliability?

Answer 13

A measure of consistency. If a particular measurement can be repeated, then it is described as being reliable.

Question 14

2 Ways of assessing reliability…

Answer 14

1. Test- retest

2. Inter- observer reliability

Question 15

What is Test- retest?

Answer 15

Involves administering the same test or questionnaire to the same person or people, on two separate occasions. If the results produced are the same on both occasions, and when correlated turn out positive, then the test is reliable.

Question 16

What is inter- observer reliability?

Answer 16

Observations should be carried out by at least 2 observers to prevent subjectivity. This may involve observers taking part in a pilot study, to check they are both applying the same behavioural categories. Results between the two are then correlated, if positive then observers data is reliable.

Question 17

4 ways of Improving reliability…

Answer 17

1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews- using same interviewer each time
3. Experiments- Lab experiments
4. Observations- fully operationalise

Question 18

What is validity?

Answer 18

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine. Whether a psychological test, observation or experiment produces a result that is legitimate.

Question 19

6 types of validity…

Answer 19

1. Internal validity
2. External validity
3. Face validity
4. Concurrent validity
5. Ecological validity
6. Temporal validity

Question 20

What is internal validity?

Answer 20

Whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor.

Question 21

What is external validity?

Answer 21

Whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to factors outside of the investigation and can be generalised to other settings.

Question 22

What is face validity?

Answer 22

Whether a test/ experiment appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. eg does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety? Assessment of validity.

Question 23

What is Concurrent validity?

Answer 23

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure. Assessment of validity.

Question 24

What is ecological validity?

Answer 24

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. A form of external validity.

Question 25

What is temporal validity?

Answer 25

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times. A form of external validity.

Question 26

4 ways of improving validity…

Answer 26

1. Experimental research- using a control group
2. Questionnaires- anonymity prevents effects of social desirability bias (respondents lying when answering)
3. Observations- covert observations
4. Qualitative methods- more ecological v. as case studies etc that have more detail can be applied elsewhere.

Question 27

Choosing a statistical test…

Answer 27

difference correlation
unrelated related
nom chi-squared sign test chi- sqaured
ord mann Whit wilcoxon spearmans rho
inter unrelated t related t pearsons’ r

Question 28

What 3 tests are examples of parametric tests?

Answer 28

Unrelated t test
Related t test
Pearsons’ r

Question 29

What is probability?

Answer 29

The likelihood that a particular event will occur, where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty.

Question 30

What is a null hypothesis?

Answer 30

States there is no difference between two conditions. Different to a non- directional hypothesis as this states a difference but not the direction.

Question 31

What is the level for significance?

Answer 31

p equals to or is less than 0.05

Question 32

What is the critical value?

Answer 32

A number which tells us whether or not we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis. We compare this value to the calculated value when a statistical test has been carried out.

Question 33

What is a type 1 error?

Answer 33

When the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, when it should have been the other way round.
- Too much room for error
- Too lenient and false positive
Researcher has claimed there is a significant difference or correlation, when in fact there isn’t.
More likely to happen if the significance level is too high/ lenient, eg. 0.1

Question 34

What is a type 2 error?

Answer 34

When the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected when the alternative should have been accepted.
- Too stringent
- False negative
More likely to happen if the significance level is lower, eg 0.01

Question 35

What is a paradigm?

Answer 35

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline. eg, the theory of evolution in biology.

Question 36

What is a paradigm shift?

Answer 36

The result of a scientific revolution. A significant change in the dominant unifying theory, and when scientists begin to question the accepted paradigm.

Question 37

What is a theory?

Answer 37

A set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.

Question 38

What is objectivity?

Answer 38

When all sources of personal bias are minimised so it does not influence the research process. Scientific researchers must strive to maintain objectivity. Lab experiments tend to be the most objective.

Question 39

What is the empirical method?

Answer 39

Scientific approaches that are based around evidence gathered through direct observation and experience.

Question 40

What is replicability?

Answer 40

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.

Question 41

What is falsifiability?

Answer 41

A theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue or false. The strongest theories have survived the most attempts to falsify, not because they are necessarily true, but because they cannot be proven wrong.