AS Paper 2 Psychology Flashcards
What is meant by genotype? [1]
AO1 = 1
Genotype: refers to the genes an individual possesses / an individualߢs
genetic make-up.
A recent study showed that Alzheimer’s disease may be partly inherited.
John’s father suffered from Alzheimer’s disease. John is keen to get genetically tested to
see if he will develop Alzheimer’s disease.
Explain why John’s genotype will not reveal whether he will suffer from Alzheimer’s
disease. [4]
AO2 = 4
Possible content:
* the genetic test reveals the genotype not the phenotype
* John’s genotype will only reveal his set of genes (not their interaction with the
environment)
* a genetic test will only reveal if he is predisposed to suffering Alzheimer’s disease
but will not reveal whether he will develop/suffer from the disorder
* environmental factors may contribute to the disorder (it depends on an interaction
between inherited factors and the environment.
Credit other relevant material.
Note: merely defining genotype and/or phenotype is not creditworthy.
Rita and Holly are identical twins who were separated at birth. When they finally met each
other at the age of 35, they were surprised at how different their personalities were. Rita is
much more social and out-going than Holly.
Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain this difference in their
personalities. [4]
AO2 = 4
Possible Content:
* Holly and Rita have identical genotype as they are MZ twins.
* They have the predisposition to develop the same personalities as each other
unless another factor(s) intervenes.
* For them to have developed different personalities over time, this must have
been influenced by being in different environments.
* Their phenotypes – personalities achieved – are different, presumably
because Rita was encouraged to be sociable and lively and Holly was not.
We use schema when we process information from the world around us.
Explain one reason why using schema might be useful when processing information from
the world around us, and explain one reason why using schema might not be useful when
processing information from the world around us. [4]
AO1 = 4
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation why using schema might be useful with
some elaboration.
1 mark for a limited / muddled explanation why using schema might be useful.
Possible content:
* schema help us predict what will happen in our world based on our experiences
* schema enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly
* schema prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
Credit other relevant explanations.
Plus
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation why using schema might not be useful with
some elaboration
1 mark for a limited / muddled explanation why using schema might not be useful.
Possible content:
* schema can distort our interpretation of sensory information
* schema lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate EWT / memories
* schema can cause biased recall / see what we expect
* negative / faulty schema may have a negative impact on mental health
Credit other relevant explanations.
Note: Definitions of schema in isolation are not creditworthy
Outline two features of the cognitive approach. Explain two limitations of the cognitive
approach. [8]
[AO1 = 4 AO3 = 4]
Possible features:
* Behaviour is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and non-conscious
– internal mental processes.
* Schema are the mental representation of experience and knowledge and
understanding.
* Mental processes are information processing and the processing can be compared
to that of a computer.
* Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these
can be studied scientifically and inferences made.
* Cognition and biological processes can be integrated leading to cognitive
neuroscience as a way forward to understanding human behaviour.
* Methodology - use of controlled experimentation – inference about mental
processes on the basis of observed behaviour.
Possible Limitations:
* The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as
processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality seen in emotional
behaviours.
* The focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled
environments means an understanding of everyday use of memory, for example, is
missing from explanations. This leads to issues of generalisation.
* The process of inference may be a ‘leap too far’ in explaining thinking.
* Issue of soft determinism and little room for processes other than internal mental
events affecting behaviour such as biology.
* Research findings indicate factors other than internal mental events as cause of
behaviour.
* Use of self-report as a method of data collection and the subsequent issues of
reliability.
* The focus on individual mental processes such as attention, leaves little room for
how these mental events work together.
Limitations may overlap, one may be taken as an elaboration of another. Award credit for
two limitations to the best advantage of the student.
Credit other relevant limitations.
Adil has just started studying the cognitive approach in psychology but does not
understand when his teacher tells him that cognitive psychologists use the results of
experiments to make inferences about behaviour.
Write a brief explanation of inference that would help Adil to understand what his teacher
means. [2]
[AO2 = 2]
2 marks for a clear explanation of inference suitable for a new psychology student: make
assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed/going beyond the
immediate research evidence.
1 mark for a limited or muddled explanation of inference
Accept explanations that are embedded in examples.
Explain one way in which social learning theory overlaps with one other approach in
psychology. [2]
[AO1 = 2]
Up to two marks for explaining one way in which social learning theory overlaps with
one other approach.
One mark for identifying a way in which SLT is similar to another approach. Likely
answers will refer to overlap with the behaviourist approach – learning of behaviour
and role of reinforcement; overlap with cognitive approach – mental processes in
learning. Accept any other possible answers such as overlap with the
psychodynamic approach – role of identification in gender / moral development.
One mark for elaboration / further detail or explaining limits of the similarity and / or
difference between the SLT and chosen approach.
Credit description of evidence or reference to topics as elaboration.
Outline Skinner’s research into reinforcement. [3]
[AO1 = 3]
3 marks: reinforcement is outlined accurately, with clarity and coherence.
2 marks: reinforcement is outlined with some detail, clarity and/or coherence.
1 mark: there is some relevant outline of Skinner’s research into reinforcement.
Possible Content:
* detail of procedures of Skinner’s research using the Skinner box and the
conditioning of lever pressing in rats. Credit alternative research such as
conditioning of pigeons to play ping pong
* knowledge of Skinnerian concepts in the context of operant conditioning
experiments: reinforcement (positive and negative), extinction, spontaneous
recovery, generalisation, discrimination, schedules of reinforcement and
behaviour-shaping
* detail of operant conditioning theory – voluntary responses, consequences of
actions.
Credit other relevant information.
Explain two strengths of the behaviourist approach in psychology. [4]
[AO2 = 4]
Up to two marks each for knowledge and explanation of each relevant strength.
Maximum of one mark for knowledge of one or two strength(s) / feature(s) that are
not explained or elaborated appropriately.
Likely answers: focus on experimental methodology; scientific aspect of the
approach; universal laws of learning; provides explanations for a range of
behaviours eg development; provides explanations for a specified behaviour eg
phobias; contributes to the nature-nurture debate; approach can be applied to
behavioural problems eg token economy etc.
A psychology student made the following observation to his teacher.
‘The behaviourist approach has been presented to us as helpful in understanding human
behaviour. However, most of the data have been obtained from research using animals.’
Briefly discuss the value of behaviourism in helping us to understand human behaviour [5]
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 3]
AO1
Up to two marks for knowledge of assumptions of the behaviourist approach,
behaviourist research and concepts. Content might include: behaviour learned from
experience / blank slate; classical and / or operant conditioning; unconditioned
stimulus; unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus and response; pairing /
association between the two stimuli; focus on stimulus-response associations;
consequences of behaviour; reinforcement (positive and negative); punishment;
repetition of response; scientific approach / experimental approach.
These may be embedded in the discussion.
AO2
Up to three marks to be awarded for discussion based on detail.
Has value because: success of behaviour therapy, including aversion therapy,
systematic desensitization; behaviour modification; scientific approach to
understanding human behaviour, etc.
Limited value because: human behaviour is more complex than animal behaviour;
consciousness, reflective thought and / or emotions affect how humans think and
behave; mechanically responding to a stimulus, effects of reinforcement and
punishment on behaviour may be more characteristic of animals than humans;
references to reductionism and determinism.
Credit use of relevant evidence / examples of behaviours / topic areas.
The question does not ask for reference to the stem. Full AO2 marks can be
awarded without reference to the stem and research using animals.
Discuss two limitations of social learning theory [6]
[AO3 = 6]
Limitations – possible content:
* difficulty demonstrating cause and effect – although Bandura research
controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated it is difficult to
show cause and effect in real life
* sees behaviour as environmentally determined whereas some behaviours may
be innate
* mediating cognitive factors have to be inferred so cannot measure extent of
their influence
* SLT does not explain cognitive processes, leaving this to cognitive
psychologists
* can explain learning of outward behaviours, SLT is not so able to explain the
learning of abstract notions, eg fairness, justice etc which cannot be observed
directly
* credit comparison with other theories where presented in terms of a limitation.
Credit other relevant limitations.
Describe Wundt’s role in the development of psychology [6]
[AO1 = 6]
Possible content:
Credit mediational processes relevant to Bradley’s situation e.g.
* Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to
controlled research.
* Set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s.
* Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
* Introspection – systematic analysis of own conscious experience of a stimulus.
* An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations,
emotional reaction etc.
* His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental
processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.
Credit other relevant information.
Millie is asked to do a class presentation on introspection. As part of her presentation she
said, ‘Introspection is thinking about our own thoughts.’
After the presentation, her classmates said they had learned very little about introspection.
Explain what else Millie could have said about the major features of introspection so that
her classmates would be better informed. [4]
[AO2 = 4]
Application could include reference to other features of introspection as follows:
* Focus on being objective
* Reflection on sensations, feelings and images
* Wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object and look inwards noticing
sensations and feelings and images
* Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements
* Systematic reporting of an experience of object
* Specific examples eg use of metronome
Credit other relevant application.
