A-Level Paper 2 Psychology Flashcards
Outline the role of adrenaline in the fight or flight response. [4]
- Adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla in response to activation of
the sympathomedullary pathway. - Adrenaline has a range of effects on the body
- Direct effects of adrenaline
– increase heart rate
– constricts blood vessels, increasing rate of blood flow and raising blood
pressure
– diverts blood away from the skin, kidneys and digestive system
– increases blood to brain and skeletal muscle
– increases respiration and sweating - The general effects of adrenaline
– prepare the body for action, fight or flight,
– increase blood supply/oxygen, to skeletal muscle for physical action
– increase oxygen to brain for rapid response planning
Up to 2 marks for accurate detail of the effects of adrenaline on the body eg outline
of two different effects, or detailed account of one effect. 2 further marks for an
account of the role of adrenaline in the fight or flight response ie providing a context
for the various effects of adrenaline on the body (eg last two bullets).
You are walking home at night. It is dark and you hear someone running behind you. Your
breathing quickens, your mouth dries and your heart pounds. Then you hear your friend
call out, “Hey, wait for me! We can walk back together.” Your breathing slows down and
after a couple of minutes you are walking home calmly with your friend.
Explain the actions of the autonomic nervous system. Refer to the description above in
your answer. [4]
[AO1 = 2, AO2 = 2]
AO1
Up to 2 marks for description of the actions of the autonomic nervous system.
Likely points: one section of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic nervous
system) responds to a perceived threat / it produces physiological changes that
prepare the body for fight or flight (the alarm response) (1), and the other section
(parasympathetic nervous system) restores normal physiological functioning when
the threat has passed (1).
If candidates simply state flight or flight and rest and digest with no further
explanation 1 mark only.
AO2
Up to 2 marks for application to the description. One mark for application to
sympathetic activity – breathing quickens, mouth dries, heart pounds. One mark for
application to parasympathetic – breathing slows down / becoming calm.
Maximum of 2 marks if ‘sympathetic’ and ‘parasympathetic’ sections are
mislabelled in AO1 description
The fight or flight response enabled our ancestors to survive but can be less helpful in
response to more modern stressors.
Explain how the body responds during fight or flight and why this could be unhelpful in a
driving test situation.
- the fight or flight response causes adrenaline to be released which can cause an
increased production of sweat and faster heart and breathing rate which could be off
putting and unhelpful during a driving test (e.g. sweaty hands may make it harder to
grip the steering wheel). - the fight or flight response enables a quick reaction to fight the threat or run away
from it but neither of these options would be helpful in a driving test as if you ran
away or attacked the instructor you would fail the test.
Outline one or more examples of ultradian rhythms [4]
AO1 = 4
Candidates need to outline an example of one or more examples of ultradian biological
rhythms ie rhythms that have a cycle length of more than one cycle every 24 hours. The
most accessible example is the alternation between REM and NREM sleep during the
night. For marks in the top band candidates should provide some details of this
alternation, such as the number of REM episodes per night, the link with stage 2 NREM,
or the distinctive characteristics of each sleep type. Other examples of ultradian rhythms
include meal patterns in humans and other animals and variations in locomotor activity in
rats. Again, for marks in the top band detail beyond a simple outline is necessary.
Description of the stages of sleep without reference to the ultradian rhythm can gain a
maximum of 1 mark.
Straightforward definitions are not credit-worthy. However, candidates who provide an
incorrect definition of an ultradian rhythm but present an appropriate outline may earn
marks across the scale.
Outline one example of a circadian rhythm. [4]
AO1 = 4
Circadian rhythms have a 24 hour periodicity, and include the sleep / waking cycle and
body temperature. Candidates are likely to outline the sleep-waking cycle. Besides
correctly identifying the rhythm, an outline might include reference to the role of
endogenous body clocks and external zeitgebers such as light. However any material
relevant to the sleep-waking cycle would be credit-worthy. This section should be marked
bearing in mind time constraints.
Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Sam is a police officer. She has just started working the night shift and after a
week, she finds that she has difficulty sleeping during the day and is
becoming tense and irritable. Sam is also worried that she is less alert during
the night shift itself.
Using your knowledge of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers, explain
Sam’s experiences. [4]
Content:
* endogenous pacemakers – internal biological rhythms
* exogenous zeitgebers – external factors, eg light
* moving to night shift means pacemakers try to impose inbuilt rhythm of sleep,
but are now out of synchrony with the zeitgeber of light
* disruption of biological rhythms has been shown to lead to disrupted sleep
patterns, increased anxiety and decreased alertness and vigilance.
A psychologist wanted to test the effects of biological rhythms on the ability to solve maths
problems. She used random sampling to form two groups each of 20 students.
She tested one group on one set of maths problems at 3 am in the morning. The other
group were tested on another set of maths problems at 3 pm in the afternoon. She found
that performance of the group tested at 3 pm was significantly better than the group tested
at 3 am.
When submitted for peer review the paper was rejected because of serious design
problems.
Explain one problem with the design of this study and suggest ways of dealing with this
problem. [4]
AO3 = 4
Possible content:
* Problem – random sampling; the 3 pm group might simply have been better at
maths than the 3 am group. The solution would be a matched pairs (matched
on maths ability) or repeated measures design.
* Problem – use of different maths tests, with no evidence that they were
matched for difficulty. The solution would be to use the same set of maths
problems if a matched pairs design was used.
* Individual differences due to independent groups design so use repeated
measures but would need different but equivalent tests and counterbalancing.
* Other issues, such as individual differences in biological rhythms (‘owls’
versus ‘larks’) confounding results. Such answers should be marked on their
merits – is the problem plausible and is the solution sensible?
Julia complains that her baby is sleeping all day and keeping her awake all night.
Using your knowledge of research into exogenous zeitgebers, discuss what Julia could do
to encourage her baby to sleep more at night. [8]
[AO1 = 3 AO2 = 2 AO3 = 3]
Possible content:
* external cues act as zeitgebers (Klein and Wegmann)
* these cues may influence / entrain biological rhythms (endogenous pacemakers)
* light suppresses the production of melatonin from the pineal gland which influences
people’s sleep / wake cycle
* knowledge of relevant studies.
Possible application:
* Julia should try to keep her baby in the dark at night (e.g. shutting curtains and
keeping lights off) but expose her baby to light in the day time (e.g. keep curtains
open, go outside)
* Julia should use social cues, e.g. ensuring verbal communication, eye contact and
feeding are only in the day time.
Possible discussion:
* use of research to provide support for the importance of light as a zeitgeber, e.g.
Vetter et al. (2011), Burgess et al. (2003), Campbell and Murphy (1998)
* use of research to provide evidence against the importance of social cues as a
zeitgeber, e.g. Lughton Miles et al. (1977)
* discussion of methodological issues is only creditworthy if the implications are linked
to the stem
* discussion for and against the role of light as an exogenous zeitgeber
* counterarguments, e.g. the role of endogenous pacemakers – biological clock
Credit other relevant material.
Note: Application should be sensible and reasoned
Discuss research into the disruption of biological rhythms (e.g. shift work, jet lag). [16]
AO1 = 6, AO3 = 10
AO1
The term ‘research’ refers to both theory / explanations and studies.
Students are likely to focus on research studies into shift work and jet lag, although
other examples, such as seasonal affective disorder, could also be relevant if
presented in the context of the disruption of biological rhythms. Effects of disrupting
biological rhythms through shift work and jet lag can be behavioural (e.g. lowered
productivity), psychological (e.g. tiredness, depression, anxiety), or physiological
(e.g. increased vulnerability to heart disease and cancer). For each of these and for
both shift work and jet lag there are many accessible research studies.
More anecdotal answers that simply describe effects of disrupting biological rhythms
without reference to research studies may earn very limited credit as the description
is based on research. This includes reference to real world events such as
Chernobyl and Three Mile Island.
Some candidates may begin by outlining the mechanisms behind the disruptive
effects, such as the dislocation of endogenous pacemakers and external zeitgebers
i.e. outlining an explanation for the effects of disrupting biological rhythms.
AO3
Commentary might include the implications of findings for our understanding of the
mechanisms of the effects of disruption, and application of findings to reduce the
impact of disruption e.g. by changes to shift work patterns, or by adjusting behaviour
when crossing time zones. For full credit such applications should be linked to
mechanisms / explanations. Treatments for jet lag e.g. melatonin, would be
creditable as long as there is an explicit link to biological rhythms e.g. via the role of
melatonin in biological clocks.
Use of the findings of relevant research studies is an accessible source of credit,
where used to support or contradict our understanding of the mechanisms.
Credit also discussion of practical applications of findings. Some convincing studies
show that modifying shift work patterns can have significant beneficial effects on
behaviour and health. Other relevant discussion may include reductionism and the
nature / nurture debate.
The human female menstrual cycle is an example of one type of biological rhythm, it is called a: [1]
A circadian rhythm
B infradian rhythm
C ultra-radian rhythm
B Infradian rhythm
Lotta’s grandmother suffered a stroke to the left hemisphere, damaging Broca’s area and the motor cortex.
a) Using your knowledge of the functions of Broca’s area and the motor cortex, describe the problems that Lotta’s grandmother is likely to experience. [4]
b) Lotta worries that because of her grandmother’s age she will not be able to make any recovery. Using your knowledge of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma, explain why Lotta might be wrong. [4]
a) The Broca’s area is located in the left frontal lobe and is a language center. Damage to this area would result in the grandmother to have Broca’s aphasia which means she will have slow and inarticulate speech since the Broca’s area is also in the left hemisphere. The motor cortex is located in the frontal lobe and controls voluntary movements in the body by sending signals to the muscles. Damage to this area means that the grandmother will not be able to move the right side of her body since the motor cortex allows movement for the entire body but since her left hemisphere is damaged she cannot move the right side of her body.
b) Brain plasticity is the brains ability to change and adapt due to past experiences. The grandmothers stroke to the left hemisphere could cause her left hemisphere to change and adapt in case of any other further damages. Functional recover is when functions from the damaged areas of the brain due to trauma are transferred to undamaged area of the brain which means that when the grandmother had the stroke. the functions of the left hemisphere would have transferred to another undamaged area of the brain.
Briefly explain one function of the endocrine system. [2]
The endocrine system is a network of glands across the body that secret hormones. The ovary releases oestrogeon which is a hormone that regulates the females reproductive cycle such as the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Outline and evaluate one or more ways of studying the brain. [8]
Possible content: Candidates are most likely to describe the techniques described on the specification (outlined below) but examiners should be aware of other methods candidates may use such as lesion studies or CAT/PET scans.
* fMRI – Uses magnetic field and radio waves to monitor blood flow; it measures the change in the energy released by haemoglobin, reflecting activity of the brain (oxygen consumption) to give a moving picture of the brain; activity in regions of interest can be compared during a base line task and during a specific activity
- EEGs – electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity directly below where they are placed; differing numbers of electrodes can be used depending on focus of the research
- ERPs – electrodes are put on the scalp and detect neuronal activity (directly below where they are placed) in response to a stimulus introduced by the researcher
- post-mortem examinations – brain is examined after death to try and correlate structural abnormalities/damage to behaviour.
Possible evaluation:
* fMRI captures dynamic brain activity as opposed to MRI/post-mortem examinations which purely show physiology
- interpretation of fMRI is complex and is affected by temporal resolution, biased interpretation and by the baseline task used
- fMRI research is expensive leading to reduced sample sizes which negatively impact the validity of the research
- EEGs and ERPs are cheaper so can be more widely used in research
- EEGs and ERPs have poor spatial resolution
- post-mortem examinations may lack validity due to small sample sizes (as special permission needs to be granted) and also due to neuronal changes during and after death
- advantages of investigating brain activity in humans rather than generalising from animal lesion/single electrode recording studies (for validity and ethical reasons)
- comparisons between techniques is an effective source of evaluation marks
- research studies are creditworthy as long as they are effectively used to evaluate the technique(s) described.
