AS Lessons 01 - 05

Question 1

Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 1

The variable that the researcher manipulates in order to determine its effect on the DV

Question 2

Dependent Variable (DV)

Answer 2

The variable being measured

Question 3

Control Condition

Answer 3

Where the IV is not manipulated
To provide a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared

Question 4

Extraneous Variables (EV)

Answer 4

Any variables other than the IV that COULD affect the DV (e.g. sleep, hunger, weather etc.)

Question 5

Confounding Variables (CV)

Answer 5

Any variables other than the IV that HAVE affected the DV

Question 6

Operationalisation

Answer 6

Defining the variables and stating how they will be measured

Question 7

Four types of Experimental Methods

Answer 7

Laboratory Experiments
Field Experiments
Natural Experiments
Quasi Experiments

Question 8

Laboratory Experiments

Answer 8

When an experiment is carried out in a controlled environment (e.g. laboratory), allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV.
Participants are randomly allocated to a condition (an unpredictable method is used to decide e.g. flipping a coin)
Laboratory experiments are conducted in an artificial setting

Question 9

Evaluation of Laboratory Experiments

Answer 9

+ High level of control over the IV - easy to control any EV and prevent them from becoming CV which may affect the data collected
+ Researcher can manipulate the IV and establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV
+ Can be easily replicated - if findings are similar, then the study is reliable
- Demand characteristics may occur, making the data invalid. This includes social desirability bias (when a participant behaves in a more positive light than normal)
- Establishing a high level of control may mean that the experiment lacks mundane realism (the extent to which an experiment reflects real life). This can lead to a lack of ecological validity (the ability to generalise data to other places/contexts)

Question 10

Field Experiments

Answer 10

An experiment carried out in the real world or in a natural setting. The IV is still manipulated or controlled by the researcher to see the effect on the DV
Example: observing people in the street

Question 11

Evaluation of Field Experiments

Answer 11

+ More mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory experiment. It reflects real life more
+ A cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV can be established
+ Less chance of demand characteristics than in a laboratory experiment. Participants may not know they are in an experiment, so are more likely to act normally, so the data collected will be more valid
- Less control over EV than in a laboratory experiment. The effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by the EV, meaning the research is not valid (is not measuring what it intends to)
- Less control over the sample - the sample may not be representative of the whole population
- Difficult to replicate, meaning they may be unreliable

Question 12

Natural Experiments

Answer 12

The researcher takes advantage of the naturally occurring IV to see its effect on the DV.
The study measures variables that are not directly manipulated (caused) by the experimenter. The IV is naturally occurring. The experimenter is finding participants who already meet the conditions
Example: comparing behaviour in a single-sex school and a mixed school

Question 13

Evaluation of Natural Experiments

Answer 13

+ High levels of mundane realism and ecological validity compared to laboratory experiments
+ Very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV. An example would be if psychologists wanted to study a naturally occurring event that would otherwise be unethical to impose, such as a a study on a group of naturally stressed men aged 60-65 who have high stress levels and cholesterol
- Low control over EV compared to a laboratory experiment
- Difficult to replicate - usually unreliable, and if the experiment was repeated, the results are unlikely to be similar
- Difficult to determine cause and effect due to low levels of control

Question 14

Quasi Experiments

Answer 14

Contain a naturally occurring IV, however it is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age).
Example: males have higher testosterone than females in a sample of 50 men and 50 women aged 40-70. The psychologists may want to study this natural difference between the two genders and see what effect it have on the DV (aggression levels).
Usually take place in a laboratory setting (same as a natural experiment except this part)

Question 15

Evaluation of Quasi Experiments

Answer 15

+ High level of control - the effects of EV are minimised, so the experimenter is more confident that the IV is effecting the DV
+ Replication is very likely, due to strict controls
- Lack of ecological validity as it is done in an artificial setting that is not a reflection of a real life setting
- Demand characteristics may be a problem - the participants may guess the aim and respond accordingly, so the data could be invalid

Question 16

Observations

Answer 16

When a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in whatever behaviour is being studied

Question 17

Non-Participant Observations

Answer 17

When the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants
Example: observing participants in the gym while standing to the side and not actually engaging in any exercise

Question 18

Evaluation of Non-Participant Observation

Answer 18

+ The researcher will not be biased - will be objective and not go ‘rogue’
+ Less distractions for the experimenter, so they can have more focus on the task
- They might not understand the task fully (no first hand knowledge), so it lacks validity
- May be demand characteristics
- No informed consent

Question 19

Participant Observation

Answer 19

When the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants and will engage in the activities
Example: observing participants in the gym and the psychologist engages in exercise

Question 20

Evaluation of Participant Observation

Answer 20

+ Researcher has first hand knowledge, insight and a deeper understanding - higher validity
- May lose objectivity (like Zimbardo)
- May miss a few key details

Question 21

Six types of Observational Techniques

Answer 21

Non-Participant Observation
Participant Observation
Covert Observation
Overt Observation
Naturalistic Observation
Controlled Observation

Question 22

Covert Observation

Answer 22

The psychologist goes ‘undercover’ and does not reveal their true identity. The group does not know they are being observed.
Example: the psychologist introduces themselves as Jim, and does not tell the other people at the gym that they are actually observing their behaviour

Question 23

Evaluation of Covert Observation

Answer 23

+ No demand characteristics or observer effects - high ecological validity
- Ethical issues - deception and there is no informed consent

Question 24

Overt Observation

Answer 24

The psychologist reveals their true identity and states that they are observing the group.
Example: a psychologist visits a gym, tells the people there that they will be observed

Question 25

Evaluation of Overt Observation

Answer 25

+ No ethical issues (there is informed consent, no deception etc.)
- Observer effects can occur as participants may change their behaviour when they know they are being observed, leading to invalid results

Question 26

Naturalistic Observations

Answer 26

A researcher observes the participants in their own natural environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the IV
Example: a psychologist watched people shopping to see whether they are shopping alone or in a group

Question 27

Evaluation of Naturalistic Observation

Answer 27

+ Participants are unaware they are being observed (covert observation) so observer effects are less likely and they are more likely to act naturally = valid results
+ High mundane realism as the behaviour reflects everyday behaviour. High ecological validity so the results can be generalised to other settings
+ Useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical. For example, it is better to observe kids in a playground using natural aggression, rather than deliberately telling a child to be aggressive
- Impossible to control EV, which may influence the DV, making the results invalid
- Problematic to determine cause, especially when there is a lack of control. Cause and effect cannot be truly determined through naturalistic observations, a more controlled observation is needed
- Risk of observer bias. Due to lack of control, the observer may be very subjective and could be biased when interpreting behaviour, leading to incorrect and unreliable results

Question 28

Controlled Observation

Answer 28

In a controlled environment, where the IV is manipulated
Example: watch participants in a laboratory setting and record behaviour

Question 29

Evaluation of Controlled Observation

Answer 29

+ Cause and effect can be determined as the observation is highly controlled, so the effects of the IV are more identifiable
+ EV are controlled. The result will be more valid as the effect of the IV is more certain
+ Controlled observations are more likely to yield qualitative data that is rich and detailed, increasing the validity as the aim is more likely to be accurately measuring the key variables identified in the aim
- Low levels of mundane realism and ecological validity because of the high control. This is likely to be more restrictive, so the results may not be an accurate representation
- Observer effects may occur as participants know they are being observed (overt observation). Participants may show social desirability bias, making the results invalid
- Risk of observer bias, which means that the researcher’ own views and opinions can influence the recording of the data, which becomes inaccurate

Question 30

Observer Bias

Answer 30

If the observer knows the purpose of the study, they may observe behaviours that they think meet their aims and hypotheses. This can influence how they record their data, which can be inaccurate and subjective.
There can be two observers who each record their data separately and then correlate their observations and data together. If a Kappa score of +0.8 is gained, then the data is reliable. This is known as inter-rater reliability

Question 31

Behavioural categories

Answer 31

Special types of behaviours that are being looked for in an observation
Example: if we wanted to observe children playing in a school playground, you might observe pushing, shouting, playing alone or in a group etc.

Question 32

Event sampling

Answer 32

The observer decides what type of behaviour they are interested in and record ALL occurrences. All other behaviour is ignored.
Example: every time someone gets a cup of coffee (the event), the information is logged. All other behaviours (other drinks) are ignored.

Question 33

Time-interval sampling

Answer 33

The observer decides that observation will take place only during specified time periods, and records the occurrence of the specified behaviour DURING THAT TIME PERIOD.
Example: observing people who drink coffee between 1 pm and 1:30 pm

Question 34

Pilot Study

Answer 34

A preliminary small scale investigation of the procedures to be used in the main study. It involves selecting a few people and TRIALING out the study on them. Used to save time and money by identifying any flaws that can be rectified before the main study happens. Could be useful to establish behavioural categories and check they are suitable. Can also iron out any practical problems (where the observer should be standing etc.)

Question 35

Self Report techniques

Answer 35

Research methods in which the participant gives information about themselves without researcher interference

Question 36

Structured Interview

Answer 36

All participants are asked the same questions in the same order. This provides quantitative data (counted or expressed numerically). This usually consists of closed questions with restricted answers

Question 37

Evaluation of Structured Interview

Answer 37

+ Questions can be clarified easily (repetition)
+ Usually quite quick, compared to unstructured interviews. Closed questions require a simple yes or no answer, which is less time consuming than open questions
- Risk of interviewer effect (when the interviewer inadvertently affects respondent’s answers). This can be unintentional, but affects the data, possibly making it invalid
- Lack qualitative and in depth data. Answers are restrictive and factual, so they lack meaning and depth. Results may be invalid or might not accurately measure the key variables stated in the aim

Question 38

Unstructured Interview

Answer 38

An informal in-depth conversational exchange between interviewer and interviewee. Questions are not pre planned, but might consist of themes the interviewer wants to discuss. This provided qualitative data (non-numerical data that uses words to give a description). This usually consists of open questions that require an in depth answer

Question 39

Evaluation of Unstructured Interview

Answer 39

+ Very useful with investigating sensitive or controversial topics and might be a better research method that questionnaires. Unstructured interviews allow for probing of information to gain a true understanding
+ Less risk of the interviewer effect
+ Answers are more detailed and are high in validity
- Risk of social desirability bias, so the results may be inaccurate or invalid
- Interviewers need to be well trained in order to accurately conduct an unstructured interview and gain relevant data. This can be time consuming and expensive to implement. More training is needed for an unstructured interview than a structured interview

Question 40

Semi-structured Interview

Answer 40

Combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques to produce both qualitative and quantitative data. It consists of both open and closed questions. Some questions may be pre planned and some may not be

Question 41

Evaluation of Semi-structured Interview

Answer 41

+ The answers are not restricted. There is both structure to the questions and also a chance to expand
+ It provides both quantitative (high reliability) and qualitative (high validity) data
- Risk of social desirability, so the results may not be valid. The answers may be off topic
- The interviewer needs to be well trained and have time management skills (time consuming and expensive)
- With qualitative data, it may be hard to compare answers and analyse

Question 42

Questionnaires

Answer 42

Participants are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers. These focus mainly on an individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes. Questionnaires can be self-administered, delivered by post or done face to face

Question 43

Design of questionnaires

Answer 43

1) Type of data - whether you want qualitative (open questions) or quantitative (closed questions) data
2) Ambiguity - avoid questions and answer options which are not clearly defined
3) Double barrelled questions - avoid these since a person may wish to answer differently to each part
4) Leading questions - avoid these, to ensure the participants are not led to a certain answer
5) Complexity - use clear English language for questions and avoid jargon. Clearly define specialist terms if they are used

Question 44

Evaluation of questionnaires

Answer 44

+ Quick, easy and relatively cheap. It is possible to have a large sample and collect a large amount of data when using a questionnaire compared to another research method
+ Easy to replicate (especially structured questionnaires), so their reliability can be established. If it was repeated, the results would be similar, so it would have high reliability
- Can be ambiguous and have unclear wording. If the researcher is not there to explain, it could lead to a misunderstanding or misinterpretation, leading to invalid data collection
- Can have a low response rate, especially if they are sent by post and need to be returned. I’d there is no researcher present, the questionnaire may end up unanswered or filled in and not returned

Question 45

Correlations

Answer 45

A technique for analysing the strength of the relationship between two quantitative variables, known as co-variables. The data for a correlation is usually obtained from a non-experimental source, such as a survey.
They are plotted on a scattergram or scattergraph (one co-variable on the X axis and the other on the Y axis)

Question 46

Types of correlations

Answer 46

Positive correlation: one variable increases as the other increases
Negative correlation: one variable increases as the other decreases
No correlation: there is no relationship between the two variables

Question 47

Strength of correlations

Answer 47

Can be between -1 (strong negative correlation) and +1 (strong positive correlation).
0 means no correlation
The strength of the correlation is known as the correlation coefficient

Question 48

Evaluation of correlations

Answer 48

+ Allow psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship and measure it precisely
+ Allow researchers to investigate things that can not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons (e.g. relationship between being highly stressed and having cardiovascular disease). It would be unethical to intentionally inflict stress, but as it is naturally occurring, it is fine to study
+ Predictions can be made about one variable based on the other (e.g. if there is a relationship between stress and cardiovascular disease, we can conclude that stress needs to be minimised)
- Cannot demonstrate cause and effect - cannot tell which variable influences the other.
- Does not take into account a possible third variable that influences both (e.g. maybe an unhealthy diet can cause cholesterol, not stress?)
- Only measures linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships (when there is a positive correlation up to one point, and a negative relationship after, or vice versa)

Question 49

Aims

Answer 49

A precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out. It should include what it being studied and what the study is trying to achieve
Example: “An investigation to study the effects that eating chocolate has on mood”

Question 50

Hypotheses

Answer 50

A precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of an investigation

Question 51

Significant differences

Answer 51

Differences in the DV resulting from manipulation of the IV, if it has been statistically shown that the differences are unlikely to be due to chance

Question 52

Types of Hypotheses

Answer 52

Null Hypothesis: the IV will have no effect on the DV (“eating chocolate will have no significant effect on a person’s mood”)

Alternative/Experimental Hypothesis: the IV will have an effect on the DV:
THERE ARE TWO TYPES:
- Non-directional Hypothesis: Two Tailed:
Does not state the direction of the predicted differences (“eating chocolate will significantly affect a person’s mood”)
- Directional Hypothesis: One Tailed:
States the direction of the predicted differences (“eating chocolate will increase a person’s mood”)