Arguments based on observation

Question 1

William Paley’s Watchmaker Argument (teleological design argument)

Answer 1

1. The natural world (e.g., the eye, ecosystems) shows evidence of purpose, complexity, and order.
2. if so, it must have been designed by an intelligent designer, God.
3. So, (2)

Question 2

Fine-Tuning Argument (teleological design argument)

Answer 2

1. The universe’s physical constants are precisely fine-tuned to allow life.
2. if so, then it is best explained by an intelligent designer, God.
3. So, (2)

Question 3

Aquinas’ First Way: Motion

Answer 3

1. everything in motion is set into motion by another.
2. if so, there must be a first mover to prevent infinite regress.
3. so, (2)

Question 4

Aquinas’ Second Way: Causation

Answer 4

1. everything that exists must have a cause.
2. if so, then there must be something that prevents an infinite regress of causes, God.
3. So, (2)

Question 5

Aquinas’ Third Way: Contingency

Answer 5

1. all beings are contingent. (dependent on something else for their existence)
2. if so, then there must be a neccessary being to explain the existence of contingent beings.
3. So, (2)

Question 6

Leibniz’s Principle of Sufficient Reason

Answer 6

Premise 1: If everything that exists must have a sufficient reason for its existence, the universe must have a sufficient reason.
Premise 2: The universe exists.
Conclusion: Therefore, the universe must have a sufficient reason for its existence (God).

Question 7

Hume objection to Paley

Answer 7

1. The analogy between human-made objects and the natural world is weak (the universe is not like a machine).
2. if so, then the teleological argument is flawed.
3. So, (2)

Question 8

The Problem of Natural Evil

Answer 8

1. The natural world contains flaws and suffering.
2. if so, it cannot be the product of an all-powerful, all-loving designer.
3. So, (2)

Question 9

The Problem of Infinite Regress

Answer 9

1. An infinite regress is logically possible.
2. if so, the cosmological argument fails to establish the need for a First Cause.
3. So, (2)

Question 10

The Fallacy of Composition

Answer 10

1. The cosmological argument assumes that what is true of the parts must also be true of the whole. (e.g., every event has a cause) must also be true of the whole (the universe has a cause)
2. if so, then it commits the fallacy of composition.
3. so, (2)

Question 11

Quantum Mechanics and Causation

Answer 11

1. Quantum mechanics shows that some events occur without a cause.
2. if so, then the premise that “everything must have a cause” is false.
3. So, (2)

Question 12

Replies to Objections (Attributed to Scholars)
Defending the Teleological Argument

Answer 12

Response to Weak Analogy (Paley)
Paley argues that the sheer complexity and order of the natural world make the analogy appropriate, even if the world is not identical to a machine.

Response to Natural Evil (Swinburne)
Swinburne suggests that natural evil may be part of the design to allow free will and moral growth or to enable humans to learn to care for others.

Question 13

Replies to Objections (Attributed to Scholars)
Defending the Cosmological Argument

Answer 13

Response to Infinite Regress
Aquinas argues that infinite regress is impossible because it does not provide a sufficient explanation for existence—it merely postpones the question.

Response to Fallacy of Composition
Copleston counters that while the fallacy of composition applies in some cases, it is reasonable to infer that the universe as a whole requires a cause if all its parts are contingent.

Response to Quantum Mechanics
William Lane Craig argues that quantum mechanics does not truly show uncaused events but rather events with causes that are not yet fully understood.