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arcl 203 > arcl midterm > Flashcards

arcl midterm Flashcards

1
Q

list the 4 major periods in the history of archaeology

A

speculation
exploration
explanation
interpretation

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2
Q

describe the speculation phase (15th to 19th cent)

A

opinion without data
People see what they expect to see; bring preconceived notions to their “discoveries”
Ex. myth of the moundbuilders
Antiquarians collecting objects; cabinets of curiosity
Some excavations did take place: stonehenge, pompeii

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3
Q

describe the exploration phase (1910s to 1950s)

A

Coincides with the emergence of other disciplines:
Biology: speciation, taxonomy, evolution
Geology: age of the earth, uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism: stratification is due to slow moving forces acting over long time frames
Material culture: found associated with extinct species in ancient geological strata

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4
Q

describe the explanation phase (1960s to 1980s)

A

Mid 20th century movement toward explanation via the scientific method
Make observations from data
Propose explanations/hypothesize
Develop testable predictions/test hypotheses, collect more data (experimentation)
Use resilient hypotheses to form general explanations (theories)
Goal: to bring explanatory rigor to a social science

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5
Q

describe the interpretation phase (1980s to present)

A

Originally a rejection of scientific archaeology, now a synthesis of science and social science:
A complex subject
Uncertainty about universal explanations (vulnerable to ethnocentrism)
Expectation that dynamics of power were manifest in archaeological explanations
People are unpredictable in important ways; data keeps disproving hypothesis
Archaeologists are vulnerable to ethnocentrism
Archaeological reconstructions are often similar to archaeological cultural expectations
Goal: understanding through more representative data/ better methods
Post Processual archaeology: critiques biases within the scientific process, emphasizes the subjectivity of archaeological interpretations, more focus on gender, identity, politics, human agency

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6
Q

Dorothy Garrod

A

one of the first to study the near-east systematically

exploration phase

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7
Q

General Augustus Lane Pitt-Rivers

A

excavator of Cranborne Chase, UK and pioneer in recording techniques (based off his military experience)

exploration phase

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8
Q

Alfred Kidder

A

cultural chronology techniques to make cross-sectional diagrams; cultural chronology based on artifact and architectural styles (1915-29)

exploration phase

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9
Q

Christian Jergen Thompson

A

develops the “three age system” to classify antiquities chronologically (1836): stone age, bronze age, iron age

exploration phase

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10
Q

Marie Wormington

A

Pioneering archaeologist of North American Paleoindian periods

Explanation phase

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11
Q

Lewis Binford

A

proposed that artifacts be examined in their cultural contexts and interpreted as reflections of tech, society, and belief systems
Change from thinking about things to thinking from things
The “new archaeology”

explanation phase

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12
Q

Walter Libbey

A

invented radiocarbon dating

explanation phase

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13
Q

Binford

A

positivism

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14
Q

Ian Hodder

A

emphasis on subjectivity of archaeological interpretations

interpretation phase

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15
Q

Key methods during the exploration phase

A

Data recording and management: Provenience: spatial context/mapping
Periodization: major stanzas in history: technological/subsistence
Classification: Patterns in things (material, morphology) = history and culture
Sampling: Patterns emerge with more data

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16
Q

Key methods during the explanation phase

A

Radiocarbon dating: radioactive isotopes; revolutionized chronometry
Zooarchaeology: animal bones; foundations of economics
Quantitative methods: statistics; patterns and confidence
Ethnoarchaeology: middle range theory; statistics and dynamics

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17
Q

Key methods during the interpretation phase

A

Representation: rediscovery of female and indigenous scholars, evidence for assumptions
Theorizing: complex interactions between meaning/culture/thing
Refined and expanded methods: especially via computation, visualization, chemistry
Context: legislation (ex. NAGPRA)
In practice: Reflexivity, Debates between stakeholders, Research partnerships

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18
Q

paradigm

A

The overarching framework, often unstated, for understanding a research problem; Working across paradigms can be more complicated but more well-rounded; The culture of research at a certain period of time

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19
Q

Culture-history paradigm

A

exploration phase
Goal: define historical societies into distinct ethnic and cultural groupings according to their material culture
Highly descriptive and comparative
Invention, diffusion, and migration is seen as drivers of cultural change and evolution
Nationalistic political agenda involved in this paradigm
Very comparative

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20
Q

Processual paradigm

A

explanation phase
goal: explain human behaviour using a scientific approach
Explains social, economic and cultural change as adaptations to material conditions
Emphasizes evolutionary generalizations, downplays importance of the individual
View culture from a systematic perspective, adaptive approach to human culture
Attempts to remain ethically and politically neutral
Attempts to come up with universal laws for human cultures/ behaviours (impossible)
Processualism: think Binford, positivism, science

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21
Q

processual vs post-processual

A
  1. deductive logic, generalizations, adaptive
  2. humanistic, ideational, multiple perspectives
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22
Q

culture

A

An integrated system of beliefs, traditions, and customs that govern or influence a person’s behavior. Culture is learned, shared by members of a group, and based on the ability to think in terms of symbols.
Archaeology considers 2 cultural frames:
The people being studied
The archaeologists

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23
Q

adaptive perspective on culture

A

emphasis on technology, ecology, demography, and economics as the key factors defining human behaviour

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24
Q

ideational perspective on culture

A

focuses on ideas, symbols, and mental structures as driving forces in shaping human behaviour

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25
Q

describe the scientific method

A

Define a relevant problem
Establish one or more hypotheses
Determine the empirical implications of the hypotheses
Collect appropriate data
Test the hypothesis by comparing these data with the expected implications
Reject, revise, and/or restest hypotheses as necessary

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26
Q

inductive reasoning

A

working from specific observations towards more general hypotheses
a bottom-up approach (data - patterns and analysis - conclusions)
Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general,

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27
Q

deductive reasoning

A

reasoning from theory to account for specific observational or experimental results
top-down (theory - data - conclusion)
you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions

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28
Q

low level theory

A

Data and obersvations
Observations and interpretations that emerge from hands-on archaeological field and lab work
Begins with archaeological objects and generates relevant facts or data about those objects
Data: relevant observations made on objects that then serve as the basis for study and discussion
Survey, excavation

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29
Q

middle level theory

A

Behaviour
Links arch observations with the human behaviour or natural processes that produced them
Moves past the observable to invisible, or relevant, human behaviours or natural processes of the past
Observations of ongoing human behaviour or natural processes OR
Evidence of the material results of that behaviour or those processes
Ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology, taphonomy

30
Q

high level theory

A

Why
Seeks to answer large why questions
Applies inquiry about the human condition
Paradigms: overarching frameworks, often unstated for understanding a research problem
Reconstructions of the past using both low and medium level theory

31
Q

ethnoarchaeology

A

The study of contemporary cultures with a view to understand the behavioral relationships that underlie the production of material culture
processualist, middle level
The ethnographic study of living cultures from archaeological perspectives
Distinct from ethnography
Designed as an effort to rationalize and systematize the use of analogy in archaeology
Applying observed behaviour to non-obserbed behaviour
Universal models downplay historical contingency and cultural specificities
Prone to assumption that all tech knowledge is explicit and can be elicited from any practitioner of tech
Assumes similarity

32
Q

experimental archaeology

A

The study of past behavioral processes through experimental reconstructions under carefully controlled scientific conditions
- Scientific method, middle level theory
The fabrication of materials, behaviors or both in order to observe one or more processes involved in production, use, discard, and deterioration of material culture
- Examining craft techniques and the traces of usage on tools and materials
Retracing the correlations between events, techniques, and everyday life in the past
- Conducting scientific, methodologically designed studies in which the size of the variables can be altered and empirical data and information can be gained
- Formulation of research questions, design of an experimental setup, measurements, documentation, and repetition of the experiments
-is NOT: reenactment groups, outdoor education, public presentations etc. (experiential NOT experimental)

33
Q

ecofacts

A

non-artifactual organic and environmental remains that have cultural relevance
reconstruct diets and environments
Examples: pollen, animal bones, coprolites,
Items that have been subjected to human modification still count (or could be artifacts)

34
Q

artifacts

A

any portable object used, modified, or made by humans (belongings)
Belongings: reinforces ongoing connection FNs have to both the place and the things taken from them
Connects the intangible with the tangible
References a different sense of ownership
Examples: arrowheads, pottery, harpoons, baskets

35
Q

features

A

a non-portable human-made remains that cannot be removed from their place of discovery without altering or destroying their original form
A non-portable artifact
Examples: graves, structures, hearths, cave paintings, postholes, middens

36
Q

human remains

A

skeletal remains of humans and their ancestors
Reconstruct age, sex, diet, health, etc.
Human/ancestor burials may also be considered features

37
Q

sites

A

a distinct spatial clustering of artifacts, features, structures, and organic and enviro remains
The residue of human activity

38
Q

regions

A

areas which exhibit a degree of cultural homogeneity in a particular period
Some things can fall into multiple categories

39
Q

context

A

literally where we find something and what is next to it
An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.)
Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s
Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix
in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other
Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

40
Q

context

A

literally where we find something and what is next to it
An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.)
Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s
Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix
in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other
Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

40
Q

context

A

literally where we find something and what is next to it
An artifacts context usually consists of its immediate matrix (the material around it ex. Gravel, clay, sand, etc.)
Its provenience: horizontal and vertical position in space; and it’s
Association: with other artifacts or arch remains, usually within the same matrix
in archaeology: The physical location in which artifacts and features are found and the relationships they have with each other
Also the circumstances of deposition that allow inferences about behavioral significance

41
Q

spatial contexts and associations

A

Various possible spatial contests and associations for a projectile point
How might one interpret the behavior in each context
Primary context: deposits undisturbed since original deposition (in situ); data reflects behavioral processes
Ex. pompeii
Secondary context: deposits disturbed by subsequent human activity or natural phenomena
Data altered wholly or partially by transformational processes
Ex. partially looted sites

42
Q

formation processes

A

the ways in which human behaviours and natural actions operate to produce the archaeological record

43
Q

cultural formation processes

A

involve the deliberate or accidental activities of human beings as they make or use artifacts, build or abandon buildings, plough their fields, and so on
Depositional processes: The human behaviors by which artifacts enter the arch record
Life cycle of an artifact: Acquisition of materials, Manufacture, Use and distribution, Disposal or discard, Reuse and reclamation:

44
Q

natural formation processes

A

natural events that govern both the burial and the survival of the archaeological record
Examples: vegetative growth, sedimentation, weathering/errosion, flooding, earthquakes, fires, volcanoes, mudslides

45
Q

aerial survey

A

using airborne or spaceborne remote sensing to detect human activities (sites, features)
Assess topography: shape, elevation

46
Q

LiDar

A

light detection and return
Infrared scan of ground from plane, drone, satellite, handheld
Signal return creates a 3D version of the earth’s surface
Longest return signal sees beneath vegetation
High accuracy; enhances topography
Especially helpful in heavily vegetated areas (ex jungle)

47
Q

surface survey: 4 types

A

Unsystematic survey: feilldwalking - randomly scanning an area on food
Systematic survey: grid system - pedestrian survey of area using carefully laid out grid systems or transects, recording artifacts/features
Non-collection survey: surface survey in which artifacts locations are recorded by sensitives GPS instruments and data gathered only in the field
Reburial movement (new thing)

48
Q

survey sampling principles

A

Sample as little as possible to fulfill the research question (ethics/cost)
Sample size depends on population geterogeneity/research purpose
Sample form (location) depends on sampling strategy
Random: goal is representation
Judgemental: goal is a known target
Systematic: being thorough
Stratified: mixed

49
Q

ground remote sensing (definition and 3 types)

A

Use of non destructive techniques to find and map subsurface structures
Metal detecting
GPR
Magnetometry

50
Q

GPR

A

Ground Penetrating Radar:
Electromagnetic radar pulses (radio waves) image the subsurface by detecting the reflected signals from subsurface structures
Create images of the subsurface by detecting the reflected signals from subsurface structures
Requires lots of computation; we know something is down there, but don’t know what necessarily

51
Q

magnetic surveying

A

Records spatial variation in the earth’s magnetic field
Reacts strongly to iron, steel, brick, burned soil (and more)

52
Q

excavation

A

Sites are non-renewable resources
Archs carefully consider where and how much to excavate
Only suitable for some sites (ex. Sites that are to be built upon)
Systematic uncovering of remains through removal of soil deposits, and other material covering and accompanying them
Excavation yields evidence of contemporary activities and changes through time

53
Q

excavation methods

A

Exploratory: shovel test, judgemental or systematic, levels
Site identification: test, vertical, random, levels
Developments over time: vertical, judgemental, layers
Site use patterns: horizontal, judgemental, layers
Site use variability: horizontal, random, levels

54
Q

test excavation

A

Systematic, small, subsurface excavations to tests for presence/absence of archaeological data
Dig in 3D grids: horizontal 1x1m; vertical
Sometimes excavated in levels, singe the main data is the profile

55
Q

layers vs levels

A

Natural layers: the sites strata visually seperable from other levels by a change in texture, color, rock, or organic content
Arbitrary levels: basic vertical subdivisions of an excavation square

56
Q

vertical excavation

A

Long linear trenches across key parts of a site to evaluate the vertical dimension
Expose and record stratigraphy
Understand site formation
Distinguish natural and human activity (depositional history)
Trench digging

57
Q

horizontal (area) excavation

A

Broad, open excavations often in large grids designed to explore one time period in great detail
Records and removes layers

58
Q

types of units: 5

A

Wheeler box grid: squares between units with balks
Open area excavation: still have squares, but no balks
Step trenching: a trench with steps in it
Digging:
Levels OR
Stratigraphically
Ie. you create levels, or did stratigraphically (layers)

59
Q

relative dating

A

determination of a chronology without a fixed time scale
Typological sequence or seriation (stone, bronze, iron)

60
Q

absolute/ chronometric dating

A

the determination of age with reference to a specific timescale
Specific calendar year (1500CE) or range of years (3.6-3.8MYA)

61
Q

typological sequence

A

Diagnostic artifact: coins, trademark items, artifacts
Typology: artifacts classified according so simlitarity and linked to a specific context or period (ex artistic style/conventions; works best with pottery)

62
Q

seriation

A

Relative dating method that orders artifacts based on the assumption that once cultural style slowly replaces another over time
Ex, coins, phones, tvs, headphones, computers weapons, jewlery, audio recording devices, cameras, etc.
Gradual changes in design

63
Q

radiometric methods

A

Use decay rates of naturally occurring radioactive elements that transform from one isotope into another (carbon, potassium, argon, uranium)
Isotope: atoms of the same element but with different masses; same number of protons but different number of neutrons

64
Q

radiocarbon

A

C14 produced in atmosphere
Absorbed by plants through CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Animals feed off plants or other animals
Uptake of C14 ceases when the plant or animal dies
Time measurement based on isotopes “half life”
Half life: the time it takes for one half of the atoms of a radioactive material to decay
Half life of C14 is 5730 years
After about 50,000 years there is too little C14 to measure accurately
Range 400 yrs ago to 50,000 years ago
What can’t we date? (radiocarbon):
Things older or younger than x years,
metals, rocks,

65
Q

calibration

A

DeVries effect: Amount of C14 in atmosphere is not consistent through time
`Calibration based on radiocarbon from tree-rings with known calendar dates
Radiocarbon dates can be calibrated to more than one calendar date (error range)

Reservoir effect: Samples from organisms that took in carbon from a source that was depleted of or enriched in carbon-14 relative to the atmosphere may return ages that are considerably older or younger than they actually are

66
Q

dendrochronology

A

The study of annual variations in tree-ring patterns as a measure of environmental change as the basis fr chronology
Light bands formed in summer; dark in winter
Thickness of bands changes from year to year
This pattern can help us reconstruct the time period
Can work for up to 8000 years in the past
Regional
Master sequence back from present
Species used in the past
Sufficiently long record to give a unique match
Caution: old wood can be scavanged and reused in a later site
Gives us a sense of environmental patterns
Calibrate radiocarbon dates

67
Q

Potassium/Argon dating

A

Radioactive isotope K40 slowly decays to a stable isotope of Ar-40
High temperatures required (+6000C) release all original argon from the roc, setting the radiopotassium clock to zero
Igneous rocks…. See slide 24
Used for things like: volcanic ash, other things exposed to volcanic activity
Usually an indirect dating method (using dirt or whatever around what you found to date the thing you found by association)

68
Q

Trapped Charge Dating

A

Relies on the fact that electrons become trapped in mineral’s crystal lattices as a function of background radiation
The background radiation causes some electrons to move into different energy states, others get trapped within the crystal structure
A measure of trapped electrons in crystal used to provide a date (that then gets calibrated)
Thermoluminesence: based on accumulation of trapped electrons in minerals/crystals heated to min of 500C (ie ceramics, burned stone); heat releases electrons

69
Q

time systems

A

Recording time varies between cultures
The modern world uses arbitrary fixed points to generate a scale
Christian: BC/AD - birth of Jesus is 0
Secular: BCE/CE - birth of jesus is still 0
Archaeological for 14C: 1950CE is 0 (BP/before present)

70
Q

molecular sexing

A

Getting genetic material from skeletons to assign biological sex

71
Q

kinship analysis

A

DNA inheritance patterns: nuclear dna is from all ancestors, mitochondrial dna is inherited from a single lineage (only from the mother’s side)
Maternal: mitochondrial DNA
Paternal: Y-chromosome
Degree of relatedness: genomic DNA

arcl 203 (2 decks)

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