APRPREP Cards Flashcards
Professional Certification Flashcards
Doctrine of Fair Use
Permits the use of copyright material without its author’s permission. To determine Fair Use courts must look at
1. The purpose of the use,
2. The nature of copyrighted work that is being used
3. The amount and subsequent portion used
4. The effect of the use.
How long does Copyright last?
The life of the author plus 70 years. In the case of work for hire, rights are owned by a corporation. The right exists for 95 years from the first publication or 120 years from creation.
10k annual report
This report provides a comprehensive overview of a company. Must be filled within 60 days after the close of the company’s fiscal year and contains crucial info including history, organizational structure, equity, holidays
Rule 10 b-5 of Sec 1934
Concerns fraud and disclosure. An organization has the legal responsibility to ensure the information it releases concerns fraud in disclosure. An organization has the legal responsibility to ensure the information it releases is both accurate and complete.
The Security Exchange Act of 1934
Mandates disclosure. Aims to level the playing field for investors. Requires filing specific information with the SEC to make it available for the public.
Rule 5C
Rule 5C of the security exchange Act of 1933 deals with the registration of securities and led the embargo of publicity materials during a specific time frame- frequently the gag period because the materials could be construed as an effort to sell new security. The gag period is in effect from the date a corporation officially registers it’s intent to offer security.
Sarbanes Oaxley
Legislation covers corporate auditing and accountability responsibility and transparency. Provisions within this law affect how information is disclosed and therefore intersects with the practice of public relations. Public companies are required to evaluate and disclose the effectiveness of the internal reports.
Proxy Statement
Sometimes referred to as form Def 14A. Document produced for the benefit of shareholders prior to annual meeting of shareholders so they can make an informed decisions about matters due to be discussed at the annual meeting. Issues can include proposals for new additions to the Board of Directors
8K current report
The 8K filings are filed for unscheduled material or corporate events of importance to the shareholders and SEC. This report helps determine any significant problems the company may be facing, such as litigation, executive malfeasance or other problems. 8K filings of competitors, suppliers, and industry peers can indicate problems facing industry.
A quarterly financial report containing unaudited financial data. The 10Q is due 35 days after the close of each of the first three fiscal quarters. The 10k is filed after the fourth quarter.
Section 14 of the Act of 1934
Covers solicitation of proxies in the time frame between sending the official statement and holding an annual meeting where the proxy voting occurs. Since a specific # of proxies are required companies can use ads, news releases, speeches, etc. for potential solicitation and ensure filing with the SEC.
Forms (Types) of for-profit businesses
Sole proprietorship, partnership, corporations, s-income, c-income
Types of publics
All issue, apathetic, single issue, hot issue publics
Agenda Setting Theory
The media not only tell people what to think about in broad terms, but additionally how to think about in specific items and then what to think. Media shape top-of-mind presence.
Agenda- Setting Theory
Concept 1: The agenda- Setting process is very fluid and dynamic attempt to get the attention of the media, the public or policy makers.
PRSA Code of Ethics Values
Values: Advocacy, Honesty, Expertise, Independence, Loyalty, and Fairness
PRSA Code of Ethics Core Provisions
Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information, Safeguard Confidence, Conflict of Interest, Enhance the profession
Advertising
Information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for time and space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media..
A product sevice or concept that is publicly distinguished from other products, services or concepts so that it can be easily communicated and usually marketed. A brand name is the name of the distinctive product, service or concept.
Branding
The process of creating and/or disseminating the brand name. Branding can be applied to the entire corporate identity as well as to individual product and service names.
Community Relations
An area of public relations with responsibilities for building relationships with constituent publics such as schools, charities, clubs and activist interests of the neighborhoods or metropolitan areas where an organization operates. Dealing with and communicating with citizens and groups within an organization’s operating area.
Controlled communication channels
Self-sponsored communication channels, media and tools that are under direct control of the sender. Examples include paid advertising, newsletters, brochures, some intranets, teleconferences and videoconferencing, meetings and speeches, position papers and all other channels and communication products under organizational control.
Counseling
Advising management concerning policies, relations and communications
Crisis communication
Protects and defends and individual company or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation. These challenges involve legal, ethical, or financial standing.
Employee relations
Activities designed to build sound relationships between an organization and it’s employees, and,a critical element in fostering positive attitudes and behavior of employees as ambassadors for the organization.
Financial relations
An aspect of public relations responsible for building relationships with investor publics, including shareholders/stockholders, potential investors, financial analysts, the finance markets and the Security Exchange commission. Dealing and communicating with the shareholders of an organization and the investment community. Also known as investor relations and shareholder relations.
Government relations
An aspect of relationship building between an organization and government at local, state, and/or national levels, especially involving the flow of information to and from legislative and regulatory bodies in an effort to influence public policy decisions compatible with the organization’s interests. Dealing and communicating with legislatures and government agencies on behalf of an organization.
Grassroots organizing
An activist practice for creating social change among average people. Grassroots organizing is based of the power of the people to take collective action on their own behalf. This public relations technique is often used to sway public opinion and move legislators into action. Grasstops uses the same strategy but with community influencers.
Issues management
The proactive process of anticipating, identifying, evaluating and responding to public policy issues that affect organizations and their publics now and in the future.
Lobbying
The specialized area of public relations that builds and maintains relations with a government or its officials for the primary purpose of influencing legislation and regulation.
Marketing
The management function that identifies human needs and wants, offers products and services to satisfy those demands and causes transactions that deliver products and services in exchange for something of value to the provider. Targets customers.
Marketing communications
A combination of activities designed to sell a product service or idea including advertising collateral materials interactive communications publicity promotion direct mail trade shows and special events.
Media relations
Mutually beneficial associations between publicist or public relations professionals and members of media organizations as a condition for reaching audiences with messages of news or features of interest maintaining up-to-date list of media people and knowledge of media audience interest are critical to the function. Dealing with communication media and seeking publicity or responding to their interests in the organization.
Multicultural relations / workplace diversity
Relating with people in various cultural groups. Understanding multicultural and workplace diversity continues to increase importance. diversity in the workplace continues to provide challenges and opportunities - public relations practitioners and other managers impacting messaging perceptions of ideas and services. these considerations may include issues of household composition ages gender ethnic and religious backgrounds, language, technology fluency, health status or disabilities.
Press Agentry
Create a newsworthy stories and events to attract media attention and gain public notice.
Proactive public relations
Taking the initiative to develop and apply public relations plans to achieve measurable results toward set goals and objectives.
Promotion
Activities designed to win publicity or attention, especially the staging of special events to generate media coverage. Special activities designed to create and stimulate interest in a person, product, organization or cause.
Propaganda
Persuasion based on appeals rather than the merit of a case. Often gives only one side of an argument, making it deceitful and not in the public interest.
Propaganda devices
Glittering generalities, name calling, transfer, bandwagon, plain folks, testimonials, card stacking
Public affairs
A specialized area of public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial governmental and local community relations. also applies to the military and government agencies due to the 1913 Gillett amendment.
Public information
Representation of a point of view in communication such as facts news messages pictures or data; the process of disseminating such information to Publics usually through mass media; a designation describing persons charged with the task of such dissemination usually on behalf of government agencies, non-profit organizations, colleges or universities.
Publicity
Information from an outside source that is used by the media because it has news value. It is an uncontrolled method of placing messages because the source does not pay the media replacement.
Reactive public relations
Response to crisis and putting out fires defensively rather than initiating programs. there are varying degrees of reactive public relations with some situations required implementation of an organization’s crisis plan.
Reputation management
Reputation management has long been a function of public relations, which is often cited in the context of crisis management. The increased use of the Internet and related social media has given added urgency to the practice, as the immediate and anonymous nature of the web increases the risk of communications that can damage an organization’s reputation. Online reputation management isn’t growing specialized segment a public relations.
Special events
Stimulating and interested in a person, product or organization by means of a focus “happening.” activities designed to interact with Public and listen to them.
Uncontrolled communications channels
Uncontrolled communications channels refer to the media that are not direct control of the company, organization or center of messages. These include newspapers and magazines, radio and television, external websites, externally produce blogs and social media commentary, and externally produced news stories.
Advertising
Information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for time or space. It is a controlled method for placing messages in the media.
A product, service or concept that is publicly distinguished from other products, services or concepts so it can be easily communicated and usually marketed. A brand name is the name of a distinctive product service or concept.
Branding
The process of creating and/or disseminating the brand name. Branding can be applied o the entire corporate identity as well as to individual product or service names.
Community Relations
An area of public relations with responsibilities for building relationships with constituent publics such as schools, charities, clubs and activist interests of the neighborhoods or metropolitan areas where an organization operates. Dealing and communicating with citizens and groups within an organization’s operating area.
Counseling
Advising management concerning policies, relations, and communications.
Issues management
The proactive process of anticipating, identifying, evaluating and responding to public policy issues that affect organizations and their publics now and in the future.
Ethical Decision-making process
Define the specific ethical issue or conflict, identify internal and external factors that may influence the decision, identify the key values, identify the audience who will be affected by the decision and define the public relations professionals obligation to each, seek ethical principles to guide the decision making process, make your decision and justify it.
Statutory Copyright
Is a legal word or act by which the author makes the work available to the world while retaining control of the creative expression. The author must submit to the Library of Congress and display the copyright symbol on the material. Creative expression of ideas is subject to copyright.
Copyright law goals
Two major goals: to protect the original creator of the work and to provide economic incentive for new knowledge.
Common law copyright
An author who creates a tangible expression of his or her ideas immediately acquires common law copyright of the work. This right continues until the author dedicates the work to the public by general publication or surrenders common law right to obtain specific statutory Copyright protection.
Copyright law
Protects an author’s intellectual production. The dividing line between common law copyright and statutory Copyright is publication.
Defamation
Untruth that damages a reputation. Written or pictorial defamation is known as libel; spoken defamation is known as slander and need not be spoken in a public setting. To qualify as defamation, a statement must be untrue.
Proof of defamation
To be defamed or damaged, an exposed person or organization must prove three conditions were present: defamation, identification, communication(publication \broadcast), fault (malice or negligence) and damage. Since a public figure puts themselves out in the public, malice must be proven.
Fair comment
This privilege insulates a reporter or publication against defamation(libel/slander). Not a license to circulate derogatory information, the information must be related to community interest with the subject. Fair comment is a recognizable defense against a libel action, based on the argument that the statement was Tru or privileged(taken from a public document).
Defenses against libel
Libel has 4 defenses: truth, privilege, fair comment, and retraction.
Retraction
A full and prompt apology that helps mitigate damages.
Fair Use
This law allows used or part of copyrighted materials without violating copyright laws and without paying a royalty or fee when used for, criticism, comments, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research. Fair use now applies to printed works and the distribution of music photograph videos and software. Fair use does not apply to commercial use.
Foreign agent Registration Act of 1938
Public relations practitioners working for any foreign principles must register under this act, whether they are directly lobbying US government officials or not
Intellectual property
This legal term describes rights or entitlement that apply to the ownership and use of certain types of information, ideas or other concepts in an expressed form.
New York Times vs Sullivan
This ruling that actual malice must be proven by a public figure.
Right of privacy
This law important for public relations professionals to know ensures an individual’s right to be left alone and can be violated if names, likeness, and/or information is used for commercial purposes.
Torts for the right of privacy
Four torts or kinds of wrongful acts or damages to privacy exist: appropriation(the element of taking a person’s name or likeness for advertising or trade purposes without consent), intrusion(invading a person’s solitude), public disclosure of embarrassing private facts, false light (misrepresentation).
Slavish copying
This term is used for extensive word-for-word copying. For a violation, copying must be exact, word for word. Paraphrasing is not a violation, but without attribution, it does raise ethical concerns. Speeches quoting the ideas of another can lead to copyright violation.
Research
Research is the systematic gathering of information to describe an understanding situation comma check assumptions about Publix and perceptions, and check the public relations consequences. research helps define the problem and publics.
Goals
Goals are longer term, broad, more global, future statement of being. Goals may include how an organization is uniquely distinguished in the minds of its target publics.
“Our organization will be reconized as a trusted partner in the activity
Objectives
Define what behavior, attitude or opinion you want to achieve, a specific audience, how much to achieve, and what to achieve. Objective should be specific, measurable, relevant, results oriented, time specific.
“By second quarter, 40% of our audience will have attended at least one
Outcome objectives
Change behavior, awareness, opinion, support. Outcome objectives require high level strategic thinking. Differentiate between measuring public relations outputs generally short-term and surface and measuring public relations outcomes usually more far-reaching and carrying greater impact changing awareness attitudes and even behavior.
Process objectives
Serve to inform or educate. Process objectives focus on a continuing process.
Outputs
Measure activities, e.g. number of contacts or news releases. Output can help monitor your work but have no direct value in measuring the effectiveness of a campaign.
Strategies
These serve as a road map or approach to reach objectives. Strategies describe how to reach objectives.
Tactics/tools
Serve as specific elements of a strategy or specific tools more specifically “how to”. Examples include meetings, publications, tie-in, community events, news releases, etc.
Implementation
Actual messages sent through what channels, how many messages reached target audiences, monitoring tools for execution.
Evaluation
Measure effectiveness of the program against objectives. Identify ways to improve and recommendations for the future. Adjust the plan, materials, etc. Before going forward. Can serve as research for the next phase or program.
Content analysis
The objective, systematic and quantitative description and evaluation of the content of documents, including print media and broadcast media coverage. In content analysis we attempt to objectively code and describe the content of communication. Content analysis involves selecting a unit of analysis, defining categories, sampling and coding.
Survey research
A quantitative method that uses a series of written, verbal, or online questions to sample a desired universe- a population or group of people.
New York Times vs. Sullivan
Held for the first time that the First Ammendment limits the ability of states to impose damages for the publication of a statement even if false in some circumstances.
Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia
The court concluded the right of the press and public to compel access to information concerning the exercise of government power.
Exemption to FOIA
Freedom of information act. 1. National Security 2. Internal agency personnel rules 3. Information specifically exempt from disclosure by another law 4. Trade secrets 5. Internal agency memorandum 6. Personal privacy 7. Law enforcement investigation 8. Federally regulated bank information 9. Oil, gas and we’ll data
Libel
The publication of anything injurious to the good name and reputation of another or which tends to bring him in disrepute.
Fair report privilege
Shields the publisher of an accurate and impartial report of the contents of legal papers filed in court to avoid being held responsible for publishing libel statements.
Wire service defense
Reliable on a reputable newspaper or news agency for news reports. May be used as a defense against the republication of libel statements.
Five items needed to claim defamation
- A defamatory statement was made. 2. The defamatory statement was matter-of-fact not opinion 3. The defamatory statement was false 4. The defamatory statement is about the plaintiff 5. The defamatory statement was published with the requisite degree of fault.
Omnibus survey or study
A less expensive quantitative research method that involves piggybacking some questions on a research company’s poll. aAlso called subscription studies. National studies made up of clusters of questions proprietary to particular clients.
Problem statement
A brief summary of the problem written in present tense, describing the situation.
Scientific method
Principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of data through replicable observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypothesis, comparison against standards and provisions for replication; objective, empirical; predictive.
Qualitative research
Offer an in-depth understanding of how certain people and organizations think. Data gathered cannot be confidently interpreted more broadly but are restricted to the situations where the data was gathered.
Content analysis
Breaks down the rich stream of qualitative data into countable catagories based on a prescribed catagorization system. Enables a method to interpret qualitative methodologies.
Advantage of qualitative research
- Offer an in-depth understanding of how people and organizations think and operate. 2. Provide an ability to understand how specific members of a population feel about questions of value 3. Provide a richer context to explain quantitative research 4. often preferred when conducting environmental scans or monitoring a PR problem.
Manifest content
What you can actually see and count; an analysis which explains the visible and literal meaning of specific words or phrases within textual data. For example the number of times specific financial figures are given in a financial report.
Latent content
More qualitative and deals with the underlying or deeper meaning or themes of the messages. They are attitudinal in nature and more difficult to count.
Primary source
Actual documents studies, books, reports, and articles as written by researchers themselves
Secondary source
A report on the findings of the primary source. Not as authoritative as the primary source. Provides broad background and improves one’s learning curve.
Tertiary source
Reports on or summarizes the secondary source report on the primary source. These should be approached with caution because they are often biased by author’s opinions
Communication audit
Indepth secondary research method that combines attitude surveys, in-depth interviews, focus groups, and any other types of data that can be mined to understand the results of qualitative and quantitative research.
Stakeholders
Groups of people who are internal or external to the organization but who have common concerns or shared interests
Four groups who should be approached for PR problems
Prospective employees, shareholders, government agencies, special interest groups
Sole proprietorship
All profits belong to the owner. Owner pays taxes on income and is responsible for all debts. Company terminates when owner dies.
Partnerships
Similar to proprietorship but all profits and debts belong to both or all owners. Company terminates upon death of owners.
Limited Liability Company
Tax like a partnership but owners are not responsible for the company’s debt. Avoids double taxation.
Corporations
Largely publicly held companies that sell stock to raise capital. In an S corporation the income or loss is passed to shareholders. Not subject to double taxation. In a.c corporation income or loss is not pass through to shareholders subject to double taxation.
Centralized decision making
Describes the degree in which the firm owns the upstream or downstream supply chain components. Consolidate key functions of decision-making within the organization. The decision making is top down or vertical.
Decentralize decision making
Distribution isn’t making across organizational units flat or horizontal. Often require different significantly diversifies its products or is geographically diverse.
Balance sheet
Shows a firm’s assets liabilities and equity at a given point in time. Compared to a photograph.
Income statement
Measures of a firm’s profitability over a period of time, comparing gross income revenues, expenses and showing net income.
Statement of cash flow
Shows how cash flows in and out of company over a given time. Compared to a video. She is positive and negative cash flow and operating investing and financing activities.
401 K or 403 B retirement plans
Retirement plans for profit and not for profit organizations types of defined contribution plans.
Cafeteria benefit plans
Allows employees to choose from a menu of benefits health life FSA’s excetera.
Defined benefit plan
Employee promise a specific monthly benefit employee is not required to contribute and private sector companies but is required to contribute and public sector. Employee is not required to make investment decisions.
Define contribution plan
Creates an individual account for each employee benefit received is based on amount contributed and affected by income expenses gains and losses period 401k and 403b plans are types of defined contribution plans.
Regulation fair disclosure
Requires that all publicly traded companies to disclose material information to all investors at the same time.
Sarbanes Oxley
Legislation covers corporate auditing accountability responsibility and transparency. Affects how information is disclosed therefore intersects with PR. Public companies are required to disclose effectiveness of their an internal financial reporting controls accelerated insider trading reporting and blackout periods.
Antitrust
Sherman Clayton Act and Robinson Putnam act makes it illegal to engage in activities that ruins competition.
Lobbying
Federal lobbying Act 1913 lobbyist must register with the House and Senate each quarter must disclose money received during the previous quarter.
Political contributions
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925, Hatch Act of 1939 and taft-hartley act make it illegal for organizations including unions to make political contributions in connection with election to any political office or for any candidate. Organizations can form packs however because they’re funded by employees union members excetera
Registering as a foreign agent
Registration of foreign agents Act of 1938 required public relations professionals who represent foreign government to register with US government.
Edward Bernays
Wrote “crystalizing public opinion” the first book on public relations and coined the term public relations counsel with his wife Doris Fleishman. Conceptualized a new model of public relations that emphasized the application of social science research ND behavioral psychology to formulate campaigns and messages that can change people’s behaviors. Considered the father of modern public relations.
Ivy Lee Leadbetter
Created a document termed by journalists as the “Declaration Principles.” Among the principles to supply news and ensure the company’s work is done in the open, provide accurate information and not advertising, and work with media to respond promptly to requests for additional information. Considered the first public relations counselor. Used the dissemination of truthful and accurate public information to gain public support and reach mutual understanding between corporation and their publics.
Phineas T. Barnum
The great American showman of the 19th century. Used flowery language and exaggeration to promote various attractions.
George Creel
Served as the head of the United States Committee on Public Information, a propaganda organization created by President Woodrow Wilson during World War I and understood the power of publucity to mobilize the public. Started the “four minutemen” and created spokespersons. Helped President Woodrow Wilson organize a public relations effort to unit the nation and influence opinion during the,way.
Two-way symmetrical communication
A model that the public relations practitioner is a liaison between the organization and key publics, rather than as a persuader. Grunig’s “Excellence Theory” states that the most effective relationship is equal, with a 50/50 symmetrical balance for listening and speaking.
Relationship management
The idea that public relations practitioners are in the business of building and fostering relationships.
Conflict
Occurs when two groups direct efforts against each other, devising actions and communication that directly or verbally attack the other group.
Competition
A pervasive condition in life, occurs when two or more groups or organizations vie for the same resources.
External variables for conflict
External threats, industry-specific environment, general political/social environment, external public characteristics, the issue under consideration
Individual variables for handling contingencies
Individual communication competency. Personal ethical values, ability to handle complex problems, ability to recognize potential and existing threats, familiarity with external publics or its representatives
Conflict continuum
Identifies the stance of an organization toward a given public at a given time. It also shows the dynamism of strategic conflict management.
Pure advocacy
When public relations take a hard-nosed approach and refute criticism
Pure accommodation
The organization agrees with critics, changes policies, makes restitution, and apologizes for its actions
Conflict management life cycle
Shows “big picture” of how to manage a conflict. Strategic management can be divided into four phases: proactive phase, strategic phase, reactive phase, recovery phase. PR pros typically move from left to right of the cycle but may manage two phases simultaneously.
Environmental scanning
The constant reading, listening, and watching current affairs with an eye to an organization’s interest.
Issue tracking
More focused and systematic process of monitoring external coverage of an organization. Includes news story clipping.
Issues management
Occurs when an organization makes behavioral changes or creates strategic plans in ways that address an emerging issue.
General crisis plan
The first step in preparing for the worst - an issue or event that has escalated to crisis proportions.
Strategic phase
An issue that has become an emerging conflict is identified as needing concerted action by PR
Risk communication
Dangers or threats to people or organizations are communicated to forstall personal injury, health problems, and environmental damage. This communication continues as long g as risk exists or until risk escalates to a crisis.
Conflict positioning strategies
Enable the organization to position itself favorably in anticipation of actions such as boycott, adverse legislation, elections, or similar events that play out in public opinion.
Crisis management plan
A plan that prepares an organization for the worst outcome- an issue that resists risk communication efforts and becomes a conflict of crisis proportions.
Reactive phase
Once an issue or imminent conflict reaches a critical level of impact on the organization, the PR representative must react to events in the external communication environment as they unfold.
Crisis communication
Includes the implementation of the crisis management plan as well as the hectic 24/7 efforts to meet the needs of publics such as disaster victims, employees, government officials, and the media.
Recovery phase
In the aftermath of a crisis or high-profile, heated conflict with the public, the organization should employ strategies either to bolster or repair it’s reputation in the eyes of key publics
Reputation management
Includes systematic research to learn the state of the organization’s reputation and then take steps to improve it.
Image restoration
Steps taken to help improve an organization’s damaged reputation in the fourth phase of the conflict management life-cycle or the recovery phase. Organizations must demonstrate genuine change by the organization. This can be a long-term process.
Five steps of issue management
- Issue identification 2. Issue analysis 3. Strategy options 4. An action plan 5. The evaluation of results
Issue identification
Organizations should track the alternative press, mainstream media, online chat rooms, blogs, and activist group newsletters to learn what issues or concerns are being discussed.
Issue analysis
Once an emerging issue has been identified, the next step is to assess it’s potential threat to the organization. Another consideration is to determine if an organization is vulnerable on an issue.
Strategy options
Once a company sees an issue as damaging, the next step is to consider what to do about it.
Action plan
Once a specific policy has been decided on, the fourth step is to communicate with all intetested publics
Evaluation in conflict communication
Once the new policy is in place and communicated, the final step is to evaluate the results.
Strategic positioning
Any verbal or written exchange that attempts to communicate information that positions the organization favorably regarding competition or anticipated conflict.
Reputation
The collective representation of an organization’s past performance that describes the firm’s ability to deliver valued outcomes to multiple stakeholders. A reputation is the track record of an organization in the public’s mind. A good reputation is created and destroyed by everything an organization does from employee management to conflict resolution.
3 foundations of reputation
Economic performance, social responsiveness, the ability to deliver valuable outcomes to stakeholders
Reputation audits
Can be used to assess and monitor an organization’s reputation
Risk communication
Attempts to convey information regarding risk to public health and safety and the environment. It involves more than the dissemination of accurate information. The communicator must begin early, identify public concerns, recognize the public as a legitimate partner, anticipate hostility, respond to the news media, and always be honest.
A 100 percent sample. Identify all the people in your universe and give each one an opportunity to respond. Useful with small well-defined populations.
Probability sample
A scientific sample drawn in such a way that the probability of being chosen is equal or is known.
Nonprobabilty sample
Informal selection of persons interviewed. This type of sampling is easier and faster than formal methods and cam be considered to be representative of the total population that interests you. These include: Convenience, Quota, Dimensional, Snowball, Purpose
Five stages of diffusion process
- Awareness, 2. Interest, 3. Evaluation, 4. Trial, 5. Adoption
Five types of people
- Innovators, 2. Early adopters, 3. Early majority, 4. Majority, 5. Nonadopters
Publics
People who are somehow interdependent or mutually involved with a particular organization
When do you identify publics
After you’ve completed research about the opportunity, conducted a situation analysis and developed a problem statement
List of publics common to organizations
Employees, government, industry-business, community, academia, media, investment/financial, customer
Grunig’s publics
All-issue, Apathetic, single-issue, hot-issue
Nonpublic
Those whom the issue at hand has virtually no effect
Latent public
Are not aware of their connection to a situation
Aware
Understand the importance of an issue of them, but have not acted
Active public
Are doing something about an issue
Opinion
A view, judgement, or appraisal formed in the mind about a particular matter
A state or habit of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in some person or thing
Attitude
A mental position with regard to a fact or state/feeling or emotion toward a fact or state
Value
Something intrinsically valuable or desirable; something esteemed
Cause and effect diagram
Helps managers analyze a particular problem by thinking through the reasons a problem exists. Also known as a fishbone diagram.
Diversity
Differences among people within a group, stemming from variations in factors such as, age, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual preference, education, etc.
Environmental scanning
Careful monitoring of an organization’s internal and external environments for detecting early signs of opportunities and threats that may influence it’s current and future plans.
Drill - down technique
A problem solving approach that gives planners a visual image of a problem by breaking the problem into progressively smaller parts.
Line management function
In an organization structure, line management functions are often limited by product - and profit-producing functions that increase the bottom line such as; engineering, production, and marketing. Line function is the act of handling the processes and the people to deliver production of goods or services to an agreed standard, vs Staff management function, which is more strategic.
Managing diversity
Achieved when a business recognizes the strengths and specific needs/preferences of its diverse publics and employees and chooses strategies based on these strengths and perspectives.
Porter’s five forces
This decision-making tool helps to asses where power and weakness lie and assumes that there are five important forces that affect competition. A framework for analyzing a company’s competitive environment: industry competition, new market entrants, supplier power, customer/buyer power, substitute products.
Staff management function
Staff management functions provide advice and counsel to those in line function. Public Relations managers and supervisors often fall in Staff managment function.
SWOT analysis
Helps a company understand it’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Organizations use this technique for business planning, strategic planning, competitive evaluation, marketing, and product development
Publicity Bureau
Nation’s first publicity firm, forerunner to today’s PR firm, used tools of fact-finding publicity and personal contact to saturate media with railroad propaganda
Samuel Adams
Organization - sons of liberty. Committees of correspondence, symbols - liberty tree; slogans - taxation without representation; staged events, Boston tea party
Elmer Davis
Director of the office of war information during World War II. Pioneered widespread use of radio, Hollywood and media to publicize the enemy.
Rex Harlow
Founded the American Counsel that ultimately became PRSA through mergers with other public relations organizations
Louis McHenry Howe
Long-time public relations advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Recognized that mutually beneficial public relationships could be built only by coupling responsible performance with persuasive publicity
Amos Kendall
Key member of President Jackson’s kitchen cabinet, he excelled at creating events to mold opinion. Pollster, counselor, ghostwriter, and publicist
Arthur Page
An AT&T vice president who helped set the standard for corporate PR. Said a company’s performance would be determined by public reputation.
Theodore Roosevelt
First president to exploit news media as a new and powerful tool of presidential leadership
Theodore N. Vail
Laid the public acceptance and public policy foundations for the nation’s telephone system. Pioneered corporate public relations with AT&T. Understood the necessity for improving relationships between corporations and public.
George Westinghouse
Created the first corporate public relations department
Seedbed Era
Between 1900 and 1916. PR used muckraking and defensive publicity. The objective was to get the news out. Popular issues were social reform and unions.
World War I Era
Between 1917-1918. George Creel led the Comittee of public information. The themes to promote were: patriotism, the war to end all wars. The trend was organized promotion and interest groups. The Four Minutemen were started.
Booming Twenties
Between 1919 and 1929. A period of mutual understanding. PR promoted products. Key public figures were Edward Bernays and Arthur Page. WWI techniques were used for social science.
Roosevelt Era and WWII
Between 1930-1945. The common attitudes were mutual understanding, depression, and WWII. The PR Trend was mass media and social responsibility. Key figures were: Louis McHenry Howe, Elmer Davis, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Post war era
Between 1946 and 1964. The organizational attitudes were: mutual adjustment, professionalism, post-war service economy, consumerism. The PR Trend was towards credibility, Associations, code of ethics, formal education. TV became an important medium.
Period of Protest and Empowerment
Between 1965 and 1985. Organizational attitude was mutual adjustment. The PR Trend was accommodation, systems theory, management by objective, functional vs. Functionary approach.Technology began to grow. The key figure was: Marshall McLuhan for understanding the media “global village” and the medium is the message.
Digital age and globalism
Between 1986 and the present. An attitude of mutual adjustment. The PR Trend of constant technological connections, international relationships, organizational transparency.
Pre-seedbed Era
Pre 1900’s. An Attitude of public be dammed. P.T. Barnum style of PR tactics.
How should a news release be written?
- Opinion statement should be accompanied by the facts on which the opinions are based 2. Statements of opinion be clearly labeled as such 3. The context of the language surrounding the expression of opinion be reviewed for possible legal implications
Trademark
A Word, symbol, OR slogan used singly or in combination that identifies a product’s origin.
Guidelines for using trademarks
- Trademarks are proper adjectives and should be capitalized and followed by a generic noun. 2. Trademarks should not be pluralism or used in the possessive form. 3. Trademarks are never verbs.
Public opinion
Opinions on controversial issues that one can express in public without isolating oneself. Or, the sum of individual opinions on an issue affecting those individuals. It is also a collection of views held by persons interested in the subject.applies to the element of conformity that public opinion can impose on individuals who want to avoid alienation.
5 stages of diffusion of innovation
Awareness, interest, trial, evaluation and adoption. Individuals are often influenced by media in the first two steps and by friends and family members in the 3rd and 4th steps.
Preventative public relations
Continual efforts to maintain the reservoir of good will. This is considered the most effective public relations.
Factors in persuasive communication
- Audience analysis 2. Source credibility 3. Appeal to self interest 4. Clarity of message 5. Timing and context 6. Audience participation 7. Suggestions for action 8. Content and structure of messages 9. Persuasive speaking
Audience analysis
Knowledge of audience characteristics such as, beliefs, attitudes, concerns, and lifestyles is an essential part of persuasion and tailoring messages to communicate to target audiences
Health insurance portability and accountability act. Provides the ability to transfer and continue health insurance coverage for millions of Americans when the lose or change jobs. Mandates industry -wide standards for health care information on electronic billing and other processes. Requires the protection and confedential handling of protected health information(PHI).
FERPA
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. A federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the US Department of Education. This law gives parents rights with respect to their children’s education records. These rights transfer to the student when they turn 18.
Panel studies
A study designed to learn how people change over time or to track progress. The panel studies interview the same respondents several times during the study with a series of questions on a fixed schedule. Respondents may also keep a diary during the study.
Trend study
Uses different samples drawn from the same population to track change over time.
Ombudsman
Someone who listens to the concerns of internal organizational publics. This person may also review organizational publics and mediate disputes between the organization and its employees.
Mission statement
The overarching reason why an organization came into existence; a visionary statement that can guide an organization’s purpose and planning for many years.
Formative Research
Research conducted before and during implementation to inform planning and program adjustment. Obtains benchmark measures that are vital for evaluation as well as information to assist planning.
Summaritive research
Documents impact of a program. Research conducted post-program to evaluate public relations programs as evaluation research or measurement.
All issue publics
Active on all issues
Apathetic publics
Inattentive and inactive on all issues
Single issue publics
Active on a limited number of issues
Hot issue publics
Respond and become active after being exposed to an issue
Non-public
Have virtually no connection involvement or interest in the issue at hand
Latent public
Not aware of their connection to a situation
Aware publics
Understand the importance of an issue to them but have not acted
Active publics
Doing something about an issue
Opinion
Observable responses or statements concerning issues or topics. Opinions are specific to a topic and time rationale and changeable. Can be measured directly by asking a person a question and recording the response. The response is the person’s opinion.
Attitudes
Covert predispositions governing likes and dislikes. Attitudes are effective rather than cognitive subjective rather than objective global or general rather than specific and enduring rather than changeable. Attitudes cannot be measured by asking direct questions. People often can’t explain their attitudes. Therefore attitudes must be inferred through indirect questioning about how people feel or through physiological responses.
Belief
Assumptions people live by. Believes our understandings about the way things in the world work or should be. People often have trouble explaining their beliefs in detail. Neverthel nevertheless beliefs are building blocks of attitudes and opinions. Researchers often group release into system such as capitalism feminism or Christian theology
Values
Explicit standards for evaluating right wrong desirable or undesirable. Values determine what people think are important in life like attitudes are usually covered people usually say what they think is right or wrong or what is important to them but they usually can’t explain why they make those judgments.
Research
The systematic gathering of information to describe and understand publics and perceptions and to check the public relations consequences. Research helps define the problem and publics. Who do we want to reach? What do we want them to do? What messages do we want them to communicate to each public that will encourage desired behavior, increase knowledge, change attitudes?
Research terms
Primary, secondary, formal, informal, qualitative, quantitative, scientific method
Outcome Objective
Change behavior, awareness, opinion, support. Requires a high level of strategic thinking.
Process Objectives
Inform and educate
Input objectives
Measure activities or inputs. Can help monitor your work but have no direct value to measuring effectiveness of campaign
Implementation
Actual messages sent through what channels, how many reached audiences, monitoring tools for execution
Evaluation
Measure effectiveness of program objective, identify ways to improve and recommendations for future programs. Can serve as research for next phase.
Target audience
Who needs to understand? Who needs to be involved? Whose advice or support do you need? Who will be,affected? Who has something to gain or lose?
Environmental scanning
Beginning of research process. Seeks to create a body of knowledge about an issue. Detects and describe problems or potential issues. Provides information to state problem.
SWOT analysis
Internal: Strengths and weaknesses External: Opportunities and threats
Audience
A group of listeners or spectators who may receive a message but may not have a common connection.
Coordination
Can be described as the process of organizing a complex enterprise in which numerous organizations are involved and bring their contributions together to form a coherent or efficient whole. It implies formal structures, relationships and processes
Population
Individuals whose opinions are sought in a survey the population can be as broad as every adult in the United States or as focused as Liberal Democrats who live in the fifth word of Chicago and voted in the last election . A sample may be drawn to reflect the population which is sometimes called the sampling universe.
Positioning
The process of managing an organisation distinguishes itself with the unique meaning in the mind of its publics that is how it wants to be seen and known amongest Publix especially as distinguished from its competitors.
Proportion sampling
A method used to ensure that a survey sample includes representatives of each subset in the survey population in proportion to that group size in the universe.
Informal (non scientific) research
Methods of gathering information that don’t necessary follow the scientific method in are usually subjective and exploratory. Informal research can look at values or qualities it is good for pre-testing formal strategies findings cannot be projected to represent an entire population informal research may provide an early warning signal about emerging issues and is often used to inform scientific research.
Opinions
Observable verbal responses or statements concerning issues or topics opinions are specific to the topic and time situational and focus rational cognitive and objective and changeable public opinion is often described as the composite opinion of all people who make up a public.
Reliability
The extent to which a survey test or measuring procedure yields same results on repeated trials.
Risk assessment
The determination and ranking of how likely certain emergencies or crisis are to happen risk assessment is related to the larger function of risk management it uses outcomes of risk assessments to plan and execute strategies to deal with such a risk.
Sample
A portion of a whole audience; a relatively small group of individuals selected to represent a population. If the sample is drawn randomly responses from the sample may be generalized to the entire population.
Situation analysis
Information pulled together to define a situation for example HISTORY factors affecting the situation and people involved contains all information needed to write a problem statement
Stakeholder
A person or group with an interest in an organization or cause someone affected by an organization or someone who can affect an organization the term sometimes refers to investors but includes others who are committed to or otherwise involved with an organization in the sense with other than financial.
Strategy
The overall concept approach for general plan for a program designed to achieve objectives agent active can have multiple strategies general well thought out tactics flow from strategy.
Tactics tools
This exact activities and methods used at the operational level to implement a strategy and Region objective by help teething objectives tactics and turn support goals that have been set to carry out the mission or purpose of the organization tactics tools involve use of selected personnel time cost and other organizational resources
Trend analysis
Tracking and analyzing trends in news coverage online activity marketplace events and the environment to prepare and respond as changes occur part of environmental scanning.
Validity
Refers to the degree to which a research study accurately assess is what the researcher set out to evaluate researchers assess internal and external validity external validity refers to the extent to which recent results of the study can be transferred to other settings are groups internal validity assesses the study’s methodology and alternate explanations for study results.
Balance sheet
Like a financial still photograph the balance sheet shows assets liabilities and capital equity of a business on a specific date assets and liabilities are listed in order of their liquidity the balance sheet always balance is because assets must equal liabilities plus owners equity
Income statement
Lincoln Financial video the income statement allows the profitability of a business over a specific time the business can choose the length of the reporting. For example month quarter or year the income statement shows the gross income revenues expenses and net income the statement includes both cash items such as cash sales and non cash items such as credit card sales and income the statement shows depreciation as an expense an income statement also is also known as a profit loss or P&L statement
Statement of cash flow
A publicly traded corporation let’s file statement of cash flow like a financial video this report shows how changes in the balance sheet accounts and income / specific reporting period affect cash and cash equivalents cash and cash out the report breaks the analysis down by operating investing and financial activities cash flow may be positive or negative for example selling stock generates cash and is a positive cash flow.
Line management function
An organizational structure line management functions are often limited to product and profit producing functions that increase the bottom line such as engineering production and marketing.
Staff management function
Staff management functions provide advice and counsel to those in line management positions public relations and corporate legal counsel are common examples of staff management functions.
S WOT analysis
How’s the company understand its strengths weaknesses opportunities and threats organizations use s.w.o.t analysis for business planning strategic planning competitor evaluation marketing business and product development and research reports
Drill-down technique
Gives planners a visual image of a problem by breaking down the problem into progressively smaller parts by examining elements that contribute to the problem information relating to the problem and questions raised by the problem Communication experts can identify the best solutions to respond to the many parts of a problem
Porter’s Five Forces
Asus willpower and weaknesses lie and assume that five important forces affect the competition: supplier power, buyer power, competitive rivalry, threat of substitution, and threat of new entry.
Preparation evaluation
Assess the quality and adequacy of the information used to develop the program strategy and tactics
Implementation evaluation
Monitors the effort and progress unfolds
Impact evaluation
Documents the consequences of the program and provides feedback on the extent to which objectives and goals were achieved.
Groups of people ties together by some common element. Before starting to plan, public relations practitioners need to clearly define groups with which an organization needs to foster mutually beneficial relationships. Objectives need to say which public a public relations strategy is designed to reach.
Regulation Fair Disclosure
Adopted in August 2000. Requires all publicly traded companies to disclose material information to all investors at the same time. Material information is any news that could influence a reasonable investor’s decision to buy or sell stock. A company can’t share material news with just a limited audience. The company must disclose information so everyone has access at the same time.
Quiet period
The interval between when a company registers a public offering of securities with the SEC and the time the SEC declares the registration effective. At that time, the company can offer securities for sale. During the quiet period, the company can’t issue any information that might affect the stock price or be perceived as “front-running” the stock offering.
Material information
Any news that could influence a reasonable investor’s decision to buy and sell stock.
Relationship
A connection or association between entities. Relationship is the central organizing principle of public relations scholarship. Human relations are often described in terms of interactions, transactions, influence exchanges, or shared communication between individuals or groups.
Exchange relationships
Strategic and utilitarian. Rely on persuasion, often break down when disagreements arise between parties are involved
Communal relationships
Based on emotional ties, proximity or geography. They rely on two-way dialogue and are likely to survive disputes. Communal relationships are considered stronger and more enduring than exchange relationships
Relationship attributes
Level of satisfaction, commitment, trust, mutual understanding, control mutually and benefits
Crisis and Emergency
Risk communication is the attempt to provide information that allows and individual stakeholders or an entire Community to make the best possible decisions during a crisis an emergency about their well-being communicate those decisions within nearly impossible time constraints and ultimately to accept the imperfect nature of choices at the situation evolves.
Diversity
An extension of our sensitivity and understanding toward key audiences.
Asymmetrical world view
One in which an organization ‘s goal is to get what it wants without having to change the way it does business internally. This worldview focuses exclusively on the goals of the organization, and the culture is resistant to change, much like a closed system.
Symmetric worldview
Incorporates the ideas of negotiation, conflict resolution, and compromise in an organization’s operating procedures. The organization is not only self-oriented.
Issue management
A proactive and systematic approach to 1. Predict problems 2. Anticipate threats 3. Minimize surprises 4. Resolve issues and 5. Prevent crisis
Three foundations of reputation
- Economic performance 2. Social responsiveness 3. The ability to deliver valuable outcomes to stakeholders
Vision statement
Represents a future goal that outlines general priorities for where the organization is headed.
Mission statement
Conveys goals and organizational structure and strategy, legitimacy, values. Participation and ownership among employees, leadership responsibility to the community, ethical priorities and commitment to publics and stakeholders. This statement is more operational than a vision statement.
Consensus building
- Identify and recruit appropriate representatives to participate in consensus building sessions. 2. Guide participants to establish the agenda and process. 3. Identify and analyze the problem with participants. 4. Evaluate possible solutions. 5. Direct the group through the decision-making process. 5. Obtain finalization and unanimous approval of the solution.
Three elements in negotiations
Information, time, power
Reputation
The sum of what others say or think about you or your organization. Based on how you or your organization interacts with others and how you evaluate those actions.
Three pillars for a business reputation
- Economic performance 2. Social responsiveness 3. The ability to deliver outcomes to stakeholders
Public relations role in reputation management
Issue Tracking, organizational positioning, risk communication and credibility enhancement
Corporate reputation
Aggregate perceptions and interpretation of a company’s past actions and future prospects. These reputations take shape from perceptions that stakeholders have about a company’s results on seven key dimensions: Products, Innovation, Performance, Citizenship, workplace, leadership and governance
Image
Refers to characteristics you or your organization present so that others may remember you. The goal of your actions is to influence how others may remember you.
Brand
A name, term, design, symbol or any other feature that identifies one seller’s good or service as distinct from other sellers.
Trademark
The legal term for brand
History of PR Press Agentry Model
Pre-seedbed Era before 1900’s; Public-Be-Damned; P.T. Barnum
History of PR Public Information
Seedbed Era; 1900-1916; Public-Be-Informed; Ivy Lee
History of PR Two-way Asymmetric
WWI (1917-1918); Booming Twenties(1919-1929); Roosevelt and WWII (1930-1945); Mutual Understanding; Edward Bernays and Arthur Page
History of PR Two-way Symmetric
Post-war boom (1946-1964); Period of Protest and Empowerment (1965-1985); Digital Age and Globalization (1986-Present); mutual adjustment; Arthur Page, Scott Cutlip and Center
Two-step flow
Media messages indirectly affect human behavior. “Opinions leaders mediate message effects. Everyone in the audience can receive the message, but opinion leaders influence how individuals understand and respond to messages. Ex: I’ve seen lots of information online about hybrid cars. I won’t by one until I talk to my father because he nows a lot about cars.
Agenda setting
Media messages can have a direct cognitive effect but not necessarily a behavioral effect. Repeated news reports about an issue can make it important to readers by transforming an issue to the public agenda.
Framing/second-level agenda setting
As a media - effects theory, framing involves the transfer of attributes describing a person, issue or topic from media to audience. For example: News stories describe a political candidate in a certain way. News consumers begin to use those attributes to describe the candidate.
Organizational theory of public relations
Organizations are more likely to give information than to seek information. Information flow is generally one-way. Ex: The Army command information program is more likely to give information than to seek information.
Cultivation
Mass media shaped people’s view of social reality. Secondhand experience through media content can distort what people think of the world. George Gerber found that people who watched lots of TV tended to be fearful of the world, suspicious of others and susceptible to social paranoid or conspiracy theories.
Diffusion of innovation
Everett Rogers’ theory describes how people adopt new ideas. Personality traits influence how people approach new things. The theory proposes five personality catagories:innovators, early adopters, early majority and laggards. Five factors influence how soon people adopt a new idea:relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trainability, observability
Use and gratification
People seek out communication media to satisfy specific needs. Audience members are actively involved in the communication process and make goal-oriented media choices. Ex: College students prefer to get news through social networks rather than through traditional mass news media.
Third-person effect
When a person lacks information about other people’s opinions, he/she thinks others will think and behave as he/she would. W. Phillips Davidson said people expect mass media messages to affect others more than themselves. That belief may lead the first persons to act in mistaken anticipation of the media effect. Ex: Though comments on our Twitter are baseless, we better respond to prevent a loss in sales/reputation.
Spiral of silence
Elisabeth Nolle-Neumann said people constantly monitor the opinion climate around them. They perceive the majority viewpoint. Those who disagree keep silent. They are afraid of social isolation if they buck the majority view. Ex: The bandwagon effect.
Situation theory of publics
Context influences relationships. Publics are active or passive. People are more likely to seek information related to a decision they are making than to reinforce their attitudes. Those publics are active. Three elements are involved in the process: Problem recognition(awareness/interest) 2. Constraint recognition (what’s required/what motivates a person to act) 3. Level of involvement (importance). Sony publics are active on several issues; others are active on only one. Passive publics usually aren’t interested in the issue, or it isn’t important to them.
Social learning
Albert Bandera says people can learn by watching others. People adopt opinions and behaviors they see modeled and rewarded.
Social exchange
Perceived costs and rewards (efforts) of an action predict group behavior. Ex: We won’t support changing the system because the effort and cost is too much.
Social judgement
People accept or reject messages to the extent that message content corresponds to each individual’s attitudes and beliefs and influences his or her self-concept. Ex: I won’t accept same-sex marriage because it goes against my idea of marriage.
Cognitive consistency theories
Inconsistencies between attitudes and actions drive people to change what they think/believe. The goal is to achieve consistency between expressed opinions and actions. Ex: I’ve never liked people from that group; after working with them, I have changed my mind.
Attribution theory
To understand or explain circumstances, events or phenomenon, communicators assign (attributes) cause to events. Internal attribution (personal factors) external attribution (situation factors) and attribution error (wrongly assigning cause) are important considerations with attribution theory.
Identification
Identification theory examines how communication helps people seek to identify with individuals groups or cause. The goal of identification is to overcome separateness. Identification occurs when individuals are made aware of the common ground they share with others
Reasoned action
A person’s attitude towards a behavior consists of a brief that a particular behavior leads to a certain outcome an evaluation outcome of that behavior. If the outcome seems beneficial to the individual, he or she may intend to or participate in a particular behavior. Included in a person’s attitude toward a behavior is his/her concept of the subject norm. Central concepts include attitude, intent, and behavior. Knowing people’s attitudes and intents helps predict their behavior.
Inoculation
William McGuire found that people are more likely to resist persuasive messages if those people have been exposed to counterarguments in advance. People are less likely to change opinions they have already formed and tested.
Cognitive dual processing
People use different strategies for processing messages or making decisions. These strategies are based on how important the topic is (motivation) or the individual’s cognitive capacity (time to think/knowledge of the topic or general intelligence) People generally try to use little cognitive energy to make decisions. Three models: The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, The Heuristic-systematic model of cognitive processing, motivation determines processing model. Each model presents two roots to decision making
3 purposes of employee communication
- Internal communication is meant to acculture employees or to get them to understand and internalize the organization’s culture 2. Internal communication serves as a way to inform employees of organizational developments, happenings and news 3. Internal communication is a way for the organization to listen to its employees concerns or questions
PR social responsibility
PR professionals must fulfill expectations and moral obligations at the level of society. Commitment to several society applies to both individual practitioner and professional collectively. Right conduct takes into account the welfare of larger society as the professionals helps clients to solve problems. Associations of professionals exercise collective power as moral agents for the betterment of society.
PR value to society
Enhanced when 1. It promotes the free, ethical competition of ideas. Information, and education in the marketplace of opinion 2. Reveals the sources and goals of participants in the debate 3. Enforces high standards of conduct
Federal Communication Act of 1934
Gave the FCC the power to make and enforce programming policy for broadcasting and issue, renew, or deny licenses to individual station operators. The US Supreme Court ruled the right to free speech does not include the right to use the facilities of radio without a license. The US airways are owned by the public and are a scarce resource that needs protection.
1997 Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union
Speech on the Internet is fully protected by the first ammendment. Overturned the Communications Decency Act of 1996. The Internet is considered a traditional public form of mass communication. PR can freely use the Internet to send unmediated messages to constituencies.
The Children’s Protection act of 2000
Requires public schools and libraries that receive federal money for Internet use to install “technology prevention measures,” to filter info on computers for those 17 or younger to block obscene material that would be “harmful to minors “
Freedom of Information Act 1996
Bipartisan effort in the U.S. Congress to promote full disclosure from the executive branch of government. It applies to the executive department, military department, government corporation, government controlled corporation or other establishment in the executive branch of the federal government or any regulatory agency. The act applies to records and tangible items of information such as documents- not intangible info like forcing agency employees to respond to questions. Added access to digital info (e.g. computer databses) held by government agencies subject to the FOIA.
Four limitations of corporate speech relevant to PR
- Political elections 2. Lobbying 3. Labor organization and communication with management 4. Securities trading
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA)
Regulates political election contributions with three provisions 1. Soft money prohibitions -money donated to political parties for party - building purposes 2. Increases in cotribution limits 3. limits on “electioneering communications” -commercials that support or oppose a candidate without explicitly urging that candidate’s election or defeat
System
A set of interacting units that endures through time within an established boundary by responding and adjusting to change pressures from the environment to achieve and maintain goal states
Organization - publics system
Consists of an organization and the people evolved with and effected by the organization and vice versa
Communication
A reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform, persuade, or instruct, based on the shared meaning and conditioned by the communicators relationship and social context
Process of informing
Four steps: 1. Attracting attention to the communication 2. Achieving acceptance to the message 3. Having it interpreted as intended 4. Getting the message stored for later use.
Process of persuasion
Accepting change; yielding to the wishes or point of view of the sender.
Source credibility
Studies suggest the perceived status, reliabilty, and expertness of a source adds weight to messages and amplifies the value of information. Multiplying the three source characteristics by each other yields weight the source in the communication process
Issue salience
Determines the prominence and pentration the issue has with the audience, or how well it resonates with each public. People care the most about issues that are close to their own interests.
Cognitive priming
Describes the personal experience or connection someone has with an issue. Researchers thought that a person with little or no personal experience on an issue must rely on the media for information. Researchers found that previous exposure to an issue stimulates interest in that issue’s media coverage, enhancing the agenda - setting effects.
McCombs and Shaw
Media not only tell us what to think about, but how to think about it and consequently what to think
Second-level agenda building and agenda - setting effects
Linked the concept of framing by suggesting that news media attention can influence how people think about a topic by selecting and placing emphasis on certain attributes ad ignoring others. Ex:if media emphasize the integrity of a political candidate in news stories, public perceptions of that candidate should also stress his or her integrity.
Diffusion of information and innovation audience order
Innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards
Opinion leaders
Key components of gaining acceptance; tend to get information from media sources and then become themselves the source to others in their network. Some have influence on a particular issue and some have influence on a range of issues.
Direction of opinion
Indicates the evaluative quality of a predisposition telling us the “positive - negative - neutral, “ “for-against-undecided,” or “pro-con-it-depends evaluation of publics. It is a yes-no answer to a survey.
Public opinion
Reflects a dynamic process of interpersonal and media communication on issues among groups of people who have the capacity to act in similar ways. “Thinking together” often leads to “acting together “
Grunig’s situational theory of publics
A way to move latent publics to communicating active publics. 1. Problem recognition - the extent people are aware something is missing or amiss 2. Constraint recognition- the extent to which people see themselves limited by external factors 3. Level of involvement- represents the extent to which people see themselves being involved and affected by a situation.
Grunig’s publics
All-issue - active on all issues/ Apathetic publics- inattentive and inactive on all issues/ Single-issue public - active on one or a limited number of issues /hot issue publics- active after media expose almost everyone and the issue becomes a topic of wide-spread social conversation
Attitudinal system
- Evaluative frame of reference 2. Cognition -knowledge and beliefs 3. Affection - feelings 4. Conation-behavioral intentions
Pertinence
Refers to the relative value of an object found by making object-by-object comparisons on the basis of some attitude(s). Can vary depending on which attitude is used to make the comparison.
Salience
The feelings about an object derived from an individual’s experiences and reinforcements from previous situations. Refers to what a person brings to a situation as a result of history.
Grunig’s objective’s for a communicator
- Message exposure - intended audience are exposed to a message in various forms 2. Accurate dissemination of the message 3. Acceptance of the message 4. Attitude change 5. Change in overt behavior
Gratification theory of communication
The communication process is interactive. The communicator wants to inform/persuade and the recipient wants to be entertained, informed or alerted to opportunities that can fulfill and individual’s needs
7 stages of diffusion
Awareness, Interest, evaluation, trial, adoption, reinforcement
Types of audiences in diffusion process
Innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards
Theory
Statements that explain and predict how things happen based on observation, experience and experimentation.
Model
Describe, illustrate, or imagine, how things work
7 c’s of communication
Clarity, credibility, content, context, continuity, capability. Channels
Communication barriers
Artificial censorship, limitation of social contact, meager time available for paying attention. Distortion from compressing events into shorter messages. Difficulty in expressing a complicated idea into short messages, fear of facing facts perceived to threaten established routines
Nonprofit
Organizations such as certain hospitals, public radio stations, most colleges and universities and charities that don’t do business to make a profit for owners. Any surplus income derived from the business operation is used to expand the organization or support its mission. Nonprofit organizations often provide a public service.
Not-for-profit
Organizations such as credit unions, mutual insurance companies and farm cooperatives that may generate revenue surpluses but are not designed to earn money for owners or members. Surplus revenue is generally used to carry out operations. If fiscal reserves become large enough, however, some money may be refunded to member-owners.
For profit
Publicly traded corporations such as General Motors or privately owned companies such as Dell that do business to make money for shareholders or owners
Horizontal businesses
Units create similar outputs. Ex: a brewer that produces beer under many different labels.
Vertical businesses
Control all parts of their supply chains. Ex: a newspaper publishing company could own forests, run logging operations to supply wood for making paper
Centralized decision-making
A top-level leadership group sets organizational policy and direction. Facilities coordination across the enterprise, helps ensure decisions are consistent with organizational objectives and across all units. Organizational change is easier and avoids duplication of activities
Decentralized organization’s
Decisions are made in operating units across the organizations. This “horizontal” or “flat” approach promotes flexibility and market responsiveness. Creates a greater sense of,autonomy within operating units and broadens a sense of accountability and ownership. Can create organizational silos and hamper product uniformity.
Anti-trust
Sherman/Clayton Act and Robinson Putnam Act make engaging in activity that ruins competition illegal. Overselling wording on news releases, announcing acquisitions and diversitures can be cited as violations.
Lobbying
Federal Lobbying Act (1913) requires lobbyists to register with the clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives or the secretary of Senate between the 1st and 10th day of each quarter. A lobbyist must report the amount of money he or she made during the previous quarter for lobbying activities. The lobbyist must name publications in which he or she has had an editorial published on behalf of the person or organization for which he or she is lobbying. The requirement does not apply to newspapers in the regular course of business. This act only applies to persons aiding in the passage or defeat of legislation, which public relations practitioners often do. Legal statutes vary from state to state.
Earnings press release
According to the Financial Executives International and the National Investor Relationship Institute: an earnings press release should be issued as soon as practicable after a quarter-end. Public companies should file earnings press releases on Form 8K with the SEC. This release should include results for the period presented under generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). It is the management’s responsibility to prepare the earnings PR with a reasonably balanced perspective of operating performance.
3 key Financial statements
Balance sheet, income statement, statement of cash flows
Assets
Things that a company owns that have value. They can be sold or used by the company to make products or provide services that can be sold. Assets can be physical property or non-tangible items like trademarks and patents.
Liabilities
Amounts of money a company owes to others. This can include all kinds of obligations
Shareholders equity
The money that would be left if a company sold all of its assets and paid off all of its liabilities. This leftover money belongs to shareholders.
Generally accepted accounting principles are a common set of accounting principles, standards and procedures companies use to compile their financial statements.
Balance Sheet
Show what a company owns and what it owes at a fixed point in time. Similar to a snapshot of the company’s assets, liabilities and shareholders equity. Set up like a basic accounting equation (assets=liabilities +shareholders equity).
Income statement
Show how much money a company made and spend over a period of time. Similar to a video.
Cash flow statements
Shows the exchange of money between a company and the outside world also over a period of time. Similar to a video.
Statement of shareholder equity
Shows the changes in the interests of the company’s shareholders over time.
Assets
Things that a company owns that have value. Thus typically means they can be either sold or used by the company to make products or provide services that can be sold. Assets include physical property such as plants, trucks, equipment and inventory. It also includes things that can’t be touched but have value such as trademarks and patents.
Liabilities
The amounts of money that a company owes to others. This can include all kinds of obligations like money borrowed from a bank or rent owed fir use of a building.
Shareholders equity
The capital net worth. It’s the money that would be left if a company sold all of its assets and paid of its liabilities. This leftover money belongs to shareholders.
Chapter 7 Bankruptcy
Available for individuals and business debtors. It’s purchase is to achieve fair distribution to creditors of the debtors available non-exempt property. Provides a fresh financial start for individuals but not all debt is wiped away.
Chapter 11 Bankruptcy
Available for both business and consumer debtors. It’s purpose is to rehabilitate a business as a going concern or reorganize an individual’s finances through a court-approved reorganization plan. The proper term is “The company is seeking Chapter 11 protection.”
Corporation
A large publicly - held company that sells stock to raise capital. The stockholders are only at risk of losing the amount they invested in the company. A corporation can run forever since it’s owners are the stockholders. Subject to double taxation. Profits earned by corporation are taxed along with stockholders share of the earnings.
Limited liability
Business structure similar to a partnership, but owners are not responsible for company’s debt. Double taxation can be avoided.
Horizontal integration
An organizational structure that describes a company’s decision to acquire capabilities that complement it’s current core competencies. Ex: an auto manufacturer acquiring an SUV manufacturer.
Vertical integration
The organizational structure that describes the degree to which a firm owns the upstream or downstream supply chain components
Rule 5c
Part of the Security Act of 1933. Companies must register securities and embargo publicly traded materials during a specific time frame called “gag period.” The gag period is in effect from the date a corporation officially registers it’s intent to offer a security to 90 days after the registration statement becomes effective. Only direct selling of the stock by the corporation take place through a registration statement and prospectus, both must be viewed by the SEC. No comments or written statements on future sales or earnings projections, predictions, estimates can be given during this period.
HR Blackout
A temporary period in which access often to retirement funds or investment funds is limited or denied. Normally a blackout is in place for about 60 days during which employees can’t modify their retirement or investment plans because they are being restructured or altered. Notice must be given to employees in advance of a pending blackout. A blackout can also refer to a political party’s restriction on advertising for a set amount of time begone an election.
Sherman - Clayton Act and Robinson Putnam Act
Make it illegal to engage in an activity that ruins competition. Overselling wording in news releases, announcing acquisitions and diversitures can be cited as violations.
Permission marketing
A marketing strategy using email or other mobile technology to send consumers information that they have in agreed in advance to receive. Permission is a key provision of the Can Spam Act 2003.
Cascading style sheet
CSS; determines how a given element is presented on a Web page. CSS gives control over the appearance of a Web page to the page creator than to the browser designator or the viewer.
Channel
A group of items, each of which represents one post. You subscribe to the channel when subscribing to podcasts. Channel is used interchangeably with feed on many websites.
counter
A program that counts and typically displays how many people have visited an HTML page. Many sites include a counter, either as a matter of interest or to show that the,site is popular.
Cultivation
Mass media (particularly television) shapes(cultivates) people’s view of social reality Secondhand experience through media content can distort what people think of the world. George Gerbner, who began this line of thinking found that people who watched lots of TV tended to be fearful of the world, suspicious of others and susceptible to social paranoia or conspiracy theories.
Diffusion of innovation
Everett Rogers’ theory describes how people adopt new products or ideas. Personality traits influence how people approach new things. The theory proposes five personality catagories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. Five factors influence how soon people adopt a new idea: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trainability, observability
Framing
As a message-focused theory, framing describes how content elements (frames) prompt audience members to recall certain already established, shared and persistent stereotypes, metaphors or social qualities. These predispositions shape how audience members interpret messages and respond to narratives and events.
Rhetoric
Represents a category of communication concepts that trace their roots to Aristotle. Rhetorical elements are ethos, logos and pathos. The rhetorical approach uses information about the communicator, the logic of the message to describe and predict how effective
Sleeper effect
In propaganda research Carl Hovland found a decreased tendency over time to reject the material presented by an untrustworthy source. People may initially reject a message because the source isn’t credible. But after about six weeks, people may forget the source but remember—and begin to believe the message.
Agenda building
Often described as a subset of agenda-setting theory, agenda building describes how organizations can use “information subsidies” to news outlets to influence the media agenda. (Information subsidies include news releases, blog posts and interview opportunities with policy makers or advocates. The thinking behind agenda-building theory is that news coverage doesn’t just reflect reality. News coverage is manufactured product that can be influenced. By working to boost media attention to a topic, organizations can get more public attention for their issues. Increased news coverage can make those topics important to people in key publics (transfer of issue salience from media agenda to public agenda).
Competence
A PR practitioner’s knowledge and skills determine his/her role in an organization. Perception of competence depends on work context and the measurement method management uses. Competent practitioners balance concerns for what’s effective with what’s appropriate. They base judgments on social impressions of how actions and messages work to reach strategic goals.
Excellence
James Grunig, Larissa Grunig and David Dozier first published this general theory of public relations in 1992. The theory “specifies” how public relations makes organizations more effective, how it is organized and managed when it contributes most to organizational effectiveness, the conditions in organizations and their environments that make organizations more effective, and how the monetary value of public relations can be determined.” Excellence theory shaped lots of thinking about public relations in the late 20th century. The theory includes the four classic models of public relations: press agentry/publicity, public information, two-way asymmetrical and two-way symmetrical
Relationship management
Mary Ann Ferguson (1984) asserted that relationships between organizations and their key publics should be the focus of PR research. John Ledingham and Stephen Bruning’s (1998) relational perspective positions PR as a “management function that uses communication strategically.” The theory advocates long-standing engagement between organizations and publics with indicators of control mutuality, trust, satisfaction, commitment, exchange relationship and communal relationship measures used to evaluate relational dynamics.
describe or illustrate or imagine how things work
Theories
explain and predict how things happen
Communication barriers
fuzzy language, misalignment of messages with culture and values, history of distrust, distractions, negative influencers, sources or spokespersons with no credibility, unreliable media, media with which people are not comfortable, captive audiences, gatekeepers
Wilbur Schramm Communication Theory
Communication is something people do. It has no life of its own. There is no magic about it except what people in the communication relationship put into it. There is no meaning in a message except what the people put into it. When one studies communication, one studies people relating to each other and into groups, organizations and societies.
7 c’s of communication
Clarity, credibility, content, context, continuity, capability, channels
Overcome barriers to communication
- define your publics, including subsets or segments, 2. Identify your social relationship with each public 3. Understand the context and frames of reference of your relationships 4. Encode your messages effectively 5. Choose the proper medium to convey your messages
Decentralized organizations
Decisions are made in operating units across organizations. The horizontal or flat approach promotes flexibility and market responsiveness, increases control over specific markets or products, creates a greater sense of autonomy within operating units and broadens a sense of accountability and ownership. Can create organizational silos that hinder interaction and cooperation between units, hamper efforts to maintain uniformity.
Stakeholders
A person or group with an interest in an organization or cause, someone affected by an organization or someone who can affect an organization. Refers to investors but refers to investors and includes others who are committed to or otherwise involved with an organization in a sense other than financial.
Trend analysis
Tracking and analyzing trends in news coverage, online activity, marketplace events and the overall environment to prepare and respond as changes occur. Part of environmental scanning.
Validity
The degree to which a research study accurately assesses what the researcher set out to evaluate. Researchers assess external and internal validity. External validity refers to the extent to which methodology and alternate explanations for study results.
Managing diversity
Achieved when a business recognizes the strengths and specific needs/preferences of its diverse publics and employers and chooses strategies based on these strengths and perspectives
Diversity
Differences among people within a group, stemming from variations in factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual preference, education, etc.
Problem statement
A brief situation as it is now. Should be written in the present tense. Typically answers: 1. What is the source of the concern 2. Where is it a problem 3. When is it a problem 4. Who does the problem involve or affect 5. How have those people been involved 6. Why is this situation a concern for the organization and its publics
Reliability
The extent to which a survey, test or measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials.
Validity
Refers to the degree to which a research study accurately assesses what the researcher set out to evaluate.
Political contributions
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925, Hatch Act of 1939, and the Taft - Hartley Act of 1947 govern labor relations management. These laws prevent organizations including labor unions, from contributing to any political campaign or candidate, and prohibit any candidate from accepting such contributions. Organizations and unions have formed political action committees (PACs) to get around these prohibitions. PACS are legal because employees or union members. not the organization itself, fund these expectations
Samuel Adams
Organization- Sons of Liberty, Committees of Correspondence, symbols- Liberty Tree; slogans- Taxation without Representation; staged events- Boston Tea Party
Edward L. Bernays
Staff member of the Committee on Public Information during WWI. Wrote Crystalizing Public Opinion, first book on public relations (published in 1923) and with his wife Doris Fleischman, coined the term public relations counsel. Taught first college course on public relations (at NY university) and was the first to call himself a public relations professional. Said good public relations recognizes the changes in an organization’s social setting and advises clients or employers how the organization should change to establish a “common meeting ground” Among the first to advocate licensure for public relations counsel.
Carl Byoir
Staff member of the Committee on Public Information during World War I. Directed campaign to publicize the military draft among non-English-speaking men and helped to distribute information to Americans about U.S. war goals. Founded Carl Byoir and Associates one of the world’s largest public relations agencies during the mid-20th century in 1930. Represented the Tourist Information Office for the Nazi German government during the 1930’s. This connection led Congress to pass the Registration of Foreign Agents Act of 1938. That law requires public relations practitioners who represent a foreign government to register with the U.S. State Dept.
George Creel
Chairman of the Committee on Public Information during World War I. Understood the power of publicity to mobilize the public. Started the “Four Minutemen” and created “spokespersons” from key interest groups such as lawyers, actors, journalists, teachers. Used persuasive tactics to dehumanize the enemy.
Elmer Davis
Director of the Office of War Information during WWII. Pioneered widespread use of radio, Hollywood and other mass media to publicize the war effort.
Rex Harlow
Founded the American Council on Public Relations which ultimately became PRSA through mergers with other public relations organizations
Louis McHenry Howe
Long-time public relations adviser to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Recognized that mutually beneficial public relationships could be built only by coupling responsible performance with persuasive publicity
Ivy Ledbetter Lee
Created the “Declaration of Principles” in 1906. Among the principles: to supply news and ensure the company’s work is done in the open, provide accurate information and not advertising and work with the media to respond promptly to requests for additional information. Issued first news release in 1906. Among the first to recognize that publicity needs to be supported by good works. Performance determines the publicity a client gets. Used testimonials. Advised clients to make full disclosure, tell the truth and convince management to do the same.
George Westinghouse
Created the first corporate public relations department
Theodore Roosevelt
First president to exploit news media as a new and powerful tool of presidential leadership
Publicity Bureau
Nation’s first publicity agency, forerunner to today’s PR agencies. Used tools of fact-finding, publicity and personal contact to saturate media with railroad propaganda.
Arthur Page Principles
- Tell the truth 2. Prove it with action 3. Listen to the customer 4. Manage for tomorrow 5. Conduct public relations as if the whole company depends on it 6. Realize a company’s true character is expressed by its people 7. Remain calm, patient and good-humored
Loyalty
Commitment to your employer often comes before other obligations
Advocacy
You should consider both the company’s interests and the interests of publics that may be affected by the decision
Honesty
Consider obligations to tell the truth in advancing the company’s interests and in communicating to the public
Independence
Retain objectivity in counseling employers on a course of action that is in the company’s best interest both today and into the future.
Communication barriers
Fuzzy language, misalignment of messages, history of distrust, distractions, negative influencers, sources or spokespersons with no credibility, unreliable media, media with which people are not comfortable, captive audiences, gatekeepers
Ways to overcome communication barriers
Design the message so that it gets the attention of the intended public. Employ signs, images and symbols that relate to experiences common to senders and receivers. Arouse personality needs in the receiver; appeal to the self-interest of receivers. Offer ways to meet those personality needs that are appropriate to the group situation the receiver is in at the time you want to that receiver to respond.
Seedbed Era
(1900-1916) Organizational Attitudes: Let the public be informed. Muckraking, social reform, unions. PR trends: Defensive publicity. Journalists hired as “interpreters” to get news out. Key PR figures: Ivy Ledbetter Lee- full disclosure and tell the truth; Theodore Roosevelt - Bully Pulpit
World War I period
(1917-1918) Organizational Attitudes: Let the public be informed. The war to end all wars. PR Trends: Organized promotion. Promote patriotism. Use interest groups. Key PR figure: George Creel - The four minute men
8 key steps in a crisis
Assemble crisis team, identify issue, gather information, crisis assessment, consider options, compose key messages, plan action, inform audiences
4 stages of a crisis
Pre-crisis, Acute crisis stage, Chronic crisis stage, Post-crisis stage
Communication facilitator
Serves as liaison/spokesperson between an organization and it’s publics. Maintains two-way communication and removes barriers to communication channels open. Provides information needed to make decisions of mutual interest to both management and publics. Establishes discussion/meeting agendas, summarizes and restated views, calls for reactions, and helps diagnose and correct conditions interfering with communications relationships
Problem-solving facilitator
Collaborates with other managers to define and solve problems. Assists other managers in applying step-by-step public relations solutions. Uses knowledge of an organization’s policies, products, procedures and actions to create solutions
Expert Prescriber
Anticipates analyzes, interprets public opinion, attitudes and issues that might affect, for better or worse the operations and plans of the organization. Provides counsel to management at all organizational levels on public ramifications of policy decisions, courses of action and communication
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