Approaches in psychology Flashcards
Who was Wundt (1832-1920)?
- First psychologist
- Wanted to break things down in most basic parts
- structuralism
- used introspection
Who was James (1842-1910)?
- disagreed with Wundt
- what really mattered was the function of thoughts and behaviour
- Functionalism
Who was Freud (1856-1939)?
- Thought the mind was built in stages
e. g. Deprivation leads to dependency
What was pavlov’s experiment?
He noticed his dogs salivating when they smelt food, he started ringing a bell when he brought food. In the end he just rang a bell and noticed his dogs salivating.
What are the stages of classic conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus -> Unconditioned response
Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus -> UCR
Conditioned stimulus -> Conditioned response
What was skinner’s experiment?
Skinner put rats into a box without food, if they pressed a button they would get food. Rats would learn to keep pressing it.
Then he made it that the rats would get an electric shock, when they found the button the shock stopped.
Then without warning he reversed the level so that rats got shocked for pressing it, the rats learned not to press it.
What are the stages of empiricism (scientific method)
Theory -> Make a prediction -> Experiment -> observation
What is volunteer sampling?
Advertise and accept applicants
What is opportunity sampling?
Ask whoever is convenient
What is random sampling?
use numbering system/ computer to select random people
What is systematic sampling?
use a list and choose “nth” person
What is stratified sampling?
Define relevant levels then randomly select
What are the strengths and weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
+less time consuming (use first people you get) and easier to get ppts
+Gives a variety of ppt’s so sample is more representative and less biased
+less chance of screw you effect as ppts eager
-volunteer bias (as volunteers are more motivated so different from rest of population)
-volunteers eager to please so demand characteristics likely
What are the strengths and weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
-biased as drawn from a small population so results cannot be generalised
What are the strengths and weaknesses of random sampling?
+unbiased as ppts randomly selected
+unbiased as everyone in a population has an even chance of being picked
-could still be a biased sample as you could randomly select all girls which you can’t generalise
what are the strengths and weaknesses of systematic sampling?
-time consuming as have to list everyone
-not truly random unless you randomly select first name and then do nth term
-can still get a biased sample (e.g. everyone on a street is young
+Likely to represent a population unless you pick people with a certain characteristic
What are the strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling?
+Likely to be representative as it is proportional and then random
+can be generalised as population is randomly selected
-time consuming
-sample requires knowledge of a population which may not be available
What is the social learning theory?
People learn from others without direct experience.
What are the 4 ways people learn through the SLT?
Modelling- thinking about how to copy
Imitation- Copying the other person
Identification- how you relate to others
Vicarious reinforcement- others are rewarded so you change behaviour to also be rewarded
Write 3 evaluative paragraphs about the behaviourist approach
What 3 points can you write about
P- Reductionist
E- Behaviourists have been accused of ignoring other levels of explanation such as cognitive factors and emotional states. By treating humans as products of conditioning means we ignore the evidence for emotional states.
E- However, Skinner rejected this arguing that internal states are scientifically untestable. He argued that complex behaviours such as talking to other sex can be better studied using reinforcement history of individuaL
L- reductionist thinking, cannot be the sole reason people think
P- Can be applied to therapy
E- Systematic desensitization is a type of therapy based on classic C. Works by replacing CR with a relaxing response so no longer scared
E- effective when battling arachnophobia and aerophobia
L- Therefore can be applied to the real world, showing its economic benefits
P- Poor ecological validity
E-Based on rats and pigeons which are different to humans. Claim humans have free will rather than determined by + - reinforcement
E- skinner argued that free will is actually a product of external influences
L- cannot be generalised,
What are the 2 types of punishment?
Positive- adding something e.g. a slap
Negative- taking something away e.g. no phone
What are the 2 types of reinforcement?
Positive- Get a satisfying consequence when something is done so do it more e.g. get a lollipop when good
Negative- remove something unpleasant e.g. do homework to avoid detention
what was the bobo doll experiment? (1961)
Bandura
- wanted to see how people learned through indirect experience
- Divided 72 nursery children.who he had been observing in their education, grading how aggressive they were out of 5, into 3 groups of 24 (12 boys and 12 girls)
- 24 watched a model acting aggressively towards a doll, 24 watched a non aggressive model and 24 watched no model (control)
- CHildren then played in a room with toys including non aggressive and aggressive toys
- children played for 20 mins and watched through 2 way mirror and noted aggression.
What were the results from the bobo doll experiment?
“mediational processes”
Those who watched the aggressive model were more aggressive than those who had watched a non aggressive model.
Write 3 evaluative paragraphs about the SLT
P- The social learning theory can be applied to to serial killers.
E-For example, in the James Bulger case in 1993 it was found that the 2 murderers had been exposed to aggressive models. One had watched chucky several times and the other had witnessed assault in his home.
E-However this doesn’t fully support the theory as one of the ten year old boys was later discovered to be a psychopath.
L-Therefore the social learning theory cannot be generalized to all killers, as some have other motivations to kill.
P- Can be applied to Health campaigns
E- use models similar to target audience are more likely to bring around identification and greater social learning. Health campaigns use characters that model the desired behaviour of the target audience in terms of physical characteristics, attitudes and behaviours
E-Furthermore, Asenger et al (2006) found that similarity to a model in an anti alcohol campaign lead to a more effective message. Research suggests that some of the message potency may be lost may be lost if difficult to identify.
L- SLT can be applied to real world and has economic benefits as people get fitter
P- Low ecological validity
E-ignores other motivations- SLT says a person learns from gender specific modelling
E- however, a child is exposed to other influences, all of them interacting in complex ways. These include locus of control, medial portrayals and genetic predispositions. AS so many things have an effect it is hard to show that only one thing can
L- therefore cannot explain why everyone acts as they do, showing low ecological validity.
What is the cognitive approach?
Saying the brain works a lot like a computer.
Define the schema theory?
A mental plan, consisting of expectations. We use it to make a decision and to make sense of the world. It is a plan in your head which helps you to do stuff automatically.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
locating different parts of the brain that are associated, with different behaviours.
Recent scanning advances means we can see the physical modules in the brain.
What are the 2 ways we can study the brain in cognitive neuroscience?
PET scan (positron emission tomography) - £2000 a scan fMRI scan (functional magnetic resonance imaging)- £500 a scan
Write 3 evaluative paragraphs about the cognitive approach. What 3 points can you write about?
P- low mundane realism
E- For example when testing for memories, Many studies use tasks that have little in common with everyday experiences. E.g. test ppts on words or numbers. They use these rather then try to understand how memory is used on a day to day basis.
E- However it is backed by scientific methods - you can see which part of brain leads to what using PET and fMRI
L- Therefore the cognitive approach cannot be generalised to humans as it doesn’t take real world factors in consideration
P- The cognitive approach has economical benefits
E- Can be used in CBT which would make more people able to work.
E- Also can be used to explain diseases such as alzheimers. This mean more people are cured and people with alzheimers can be looked after better and for a lower price.
L- therefore can be used by companies and countries to increase economical growth.
P- reductionist
E- Human brain cannot be compared to computers as computers do not forget things or make mistakes like humans
E- also ignores motivations and emotions, doesn’t say why we do stuff. This lack of focus on motivational states could be due to the over-dependence on info-processing analogies as motivation is irrelevant to computers, but not humans
L- therefore low ecological validity
What are the 6 types of observation?
Naturalistic- nothing is changed e.g. watching animals
Controlled- We change the situation e.g. bobo doll
Covert- ppt’s unaware of being watched
Overt- ppt’s know they’re being watched
Participant-observer is part of the group theyre watching
Non- participant - observer watched from a distance
What are the pros and cons of naturalistic observation?
+ mundane realism
-lack of control over methods (extraneous variables)
What are the pros and cons of controlled observation?
\+easier to replicate \+Control \+ avoid ethical issue of consent - demand C's - less mundane realism
What are the pros and cons of overt observation?
\+ high validity as can ask questions etc \+ gets rid of problem of consent - demand C's -time consuming -cannot be replicated -group studied is small so cannot be generalised
What are the pros and cons of covert observation?
+ reduces demand C’s
+ can be only way to receive data sometimes
- cannot be repeated
-ethical issues
-difficult to gain access (need to be trusted by the group)
What are the pros and cons of participant observation?
+ can be the only way to get info sometimes
+ flexibility- can make adjustments to experiment
+ can gain access to more range of groups
+ validity
-ethics
-time consuming
- need good people skill as you don’t want to be discovered
What are the pros and cons of non-participant observation?
-researcher cannot see WHY something happens, only what
-hard to get accurate results as looking from a distance
+less likely to feel sympathy for who they’re working with
+can easily see what os going on
What are the 2 types of hypothesis?
directional = used when enough info is available, can predict what will happen non-directional= not sure what will happen, so can only predict something will happen
Why are correlations used?
Can show how strong a relationship is between 2 continuous variables Correlation are used to analyse data Use scattergrams used when: -unethical to do an experiment -impractical to manipulate variables
Define graphical?
done on a scattergram
What is a curvilinear graph?
when the graph has a curve on it
What is a linear graph?
straight line
What is the correlation co-efficient ?
Shows strength and direction of a correlation Ranges from -1 to +1 -1 has perfect - correlation \+1 perfect positive correlation 0 no correlation
Who inspired the biological approach?
Charles Darwin, says behaviour can be explained by evolution and biology
Define genotype
info in DNA , what your DNA says you should be
Define phenotype
what you actually look like, the traits you are given by a mix of DNA and the environment
What is neurochemistry?
chemicals in brains
- neurotransmitters carry signals between synapses
- all our moods/ feelings are created like this
Name 4 neurotransmitters and there function?
Oxytocin- feelings of love/safety . Released from skin to skin contact
Serotonin-relaxation. released after we eat or after exercise
Dopamine- addictive chemicals, nervy feeling of good, gets you addicted
Cortisol- sudden release of stored energy, fight of flight. released with adrenaline
Write 3 evaluative paragraphs about the biological approach?
P- reductionist theory, In 1961, sandberg identified a new variation of chromosomes. He found that some men have XXY chromosomes
E- Court brown (1967) wrote a paper on XXY which branded the XXY males as aggressive and hospitalisation was recommended
E- however this was disproved as they were proved to just be very tall and have acne
L-doesn’t show the full picture and cannot be generalised to people.
P- Follows a scientific method
E- In the early stages of brain functioning, case studies were the primary method of research but these included researcher bias and lack of control.
E- However this has improved and we now are able to use sophisticated imaging and recording techniques which has increased the precision and objectivity of research. Experiments are now highly controlled and are easy to replicate.
L- Therefore there is high internal validity.
P- Can be applied to real world
E- the discovery of neurotransmitters shows why we feel a certain way e.g. oxytocin means we feel loved and safe.
E- Furthermore Buss (1989) discovered that women liked men with resources and men liked young and healthy women, showing why we pick certain women
L- therefore high ecological validity
What is the function of the frontal lobe and where is it located?
Found at the front of the brain used for: -speech -thought -learning
What is the function of the temporal lobe and where is it located?
bottom of middle below frontal
used for:
-memory
-hearing
What is the function of the parietal lobe and where is it located?
in the middle
used for:
processing sensory info
What is the function of the occipital lobe and where is it located?
At the back of the brain
used for:
processing visual info
What is the function of the cerebellum and where is it located?
next to brain stem
used for: voluntary muscles movement
What is the function of the brain stem and where is it located?
at the bottom
used for:
involuntary muscles movement
What are descriptive statistics?
Describing the data you have collected use: -central tendency -measure of dispersion -graphs
What are inferential statistics?
when you have described data you have to infer something about it
you can use:
-correlation
-graphical display
-parametric and nonparametric difference test (e.g. nominal)
What is nominal data?
choose from categories
e.g. which newspaper you read regularly
What is ordinal data?
In order
e.g. what grades did you get from highest to lowest
What is interval data?
e.g. how quick your reaction time is
measured along a scale using numerical values
What is ratio data?
No categories, continuous
What are parametric tests?
A parametric test is a hypothesis testing procedure based on the assumption that observed data are distributed according to some distributions of well-known form e.g. interval or ratio
What are non parametric tests?
does not assume anything about the data -used when data doesn't match parametric criteria - less sensitive and powerful -require transformations of graphs sign test
What is a sign test?
make sure our results haven’t occurred due to chance- confounding /extraneous variables.
need a confidence level of 95% P<0.05
only works in repeated measures and matched pairs
How do you carry out the sign test?
1) state the hypothesis
2) record the data and work out the sign (whether it is + or - difference between first and second number)
3) Find the number of + and the number of -
4) Find critical value of the data (using another graph)
5) see if it matches hypothesis
6) report in a conclusion
Define availability heuristic?
The likelihood of selecting something is linked to its availability e.g. used in shops
What is framing?
The way info is presented has an effect on whether it is successful or e.g.
treatment A will save 200 lives
treatment b has a 66% chance of killing everyone and a 33% chance of saving everyone
B is - presented and A is +
more likely to go to one that is positively framed
What is the foot in the door technique?
- The target is given “low stakes” advice that is irrefutable and emotive
- once we agree with something it’s difficult to change our mind, even if info changes
e. g. charity, do you care about…
Why is peer review used?
to check for mistakes
otherwise can lead to big scandals:
e.g. vaccine causes autism
What does GRENADE stand for?
G gender bias, are the findings based only on men
R reductionism vs holism, does it view the full picture
E ethical issues, has any ethical issues been breached
N nature vs nurture,
A approach, how the experiment is set up (one person)
D determinism vs free will,
E ethnocentrism, cultural bias
What does GRAVEE stand for?
G generalisability, can findings be generalised
R reliability, can it be replicated
A application, can it be applied to real world
V validity, did it measure what it meant to
E ethics, were any ethical guidelines broken
E economic applications
What do you need to put in a 12 mark question about key studies/experiments?
- aim of study
- DV and IV
- participants
- types and designs
- findings
- conclusion, what they discovered
What do you need to put in a 12 mark question about key theories/approaches
- aim of theory
- 4 key terms
- 3 assumptions
- a study or application
