Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
What was Wundt’s lab?
In 1879, Wundt opened the first lab that was entirely dedicated to psychology. His work is significant as it marked the beginning of scientific psychology seperating it from its broader philosophical roots.Wundts aim was to try and analyse the nature of human consciousness as this represented the first systematic attempt to study it under controlled conditions.
What were Wundts standardised procedure?
One of his main objectives was to develop theories about mental processes such as language. They recorded various stimuli that they had experience with such as different objects or sounds. He would divide them into three sections: Thoughts, Images and Sensations
What is introspection?
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Evaluate Wundts science
One strength of his research is that some of his research were systematic and well-controlled. They were recorded to reduce extrenuous variables and all procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so all participants were tested the same. Therefore his approach can be suggested to be a forerunner to scientific research now.
Give another evaluation of Wundts science
One limitation is that other aspects of his research would be considered unscientific today. He relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. This data is subjective and some may have hidden their thoughts. It is difficult to establish laws of behaviour from this data. Suggests they would not meet the required standrad of scientific enquiry
What is the timeline for approaches in psychology?
17th Century-19th Century: Psychology is branch of philosophy. It is named experimental psychology
1879: Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology lab in Germany as psychology emerges as its own discipline
1900s: Sigmund Freud emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind and comes up with the psychodynamic approach. He also develops his own therapy (Psychoanalysis) and shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflict in the mind
1913: John.B.Watson writes ‘Psychology as the behaviourist views it’. Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach
1950s: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow developed the humanistic approach which emphasises the idea of free will.
1950s: The introduction of the digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor for the human mind. The cognitive approach reintroduces mental processes into psychology but is much more scientific
1960s: Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory providing a bridge between cognitive science and behaviourists approach
1980s: Biological approch begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific process in psychology
21st Century: Neuroscience becomes a discipline which brings together all of them
Outline the behaviourist approach
The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying the behaviour that can be measured and it ignored mental processes as they were seen as irrelevant. Early behaviourists rejected things such as introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague, so behaviourists relied on lab studies to have more controlled research. They believe that all behaviour is learned by experience. They identified two processes including classical and operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning describes learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together. An unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are paired together. The neutral stimulus eventually intiates the same response as the unconditioned stimulus
Outline Pavlovs research.
Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell if the bell was presented as the same time as their food. Gradually they learned to associate the bell (neutral stimulus) with the sound of the food (unconditioned stimulus) which created a conditioned response.
What is operant conditioning?
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences. Possible consequences include reinforcement or punishment
Outline Skinners research
Skinner conducted research with rats and pigeons in specifically designed cases including Skinner Boxes. Everytime a rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with food pellets. From then on the animal would continue the behaviour. She also showed how they would be conditioned to perform the behaviour if the consequences were negative for example an electric shock.
What is positive reinforcement?
Receiving a reward for a certain behaviour is performed ie praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class
What is negative reinforcement?
Occurs when an animal avoids something unpleasant and the outcome is a positive experience for example handing in an essay to avoid being told off.
What is punishment?
Punishment is an unpleasant consequence for a behaviour for example being shouted at by a teacher for talking in a lesson
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
One strength is that it is based of controlled research. Behaviourists focus on the measurement of behaviour in a highly controlled lab setting by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus response units where all extrenuous variables were removed which allows a cause and effect relationship to be established. This gives the experiments scientific creditibility.
Counterpoint: However this means that the behaviourists may have oversimplified the research. They have reduced the important factors of human thought on the learning of behaviour. Other approached draw onto mental processes of involved in learning. This suggests that learning is mroe complex than once suggested.
Give another evaluation of the behaviourist approach
Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has real-life application. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. It has also been applied to phobias. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach as it is a widespread application
Give a limitation of the behaviourist approach
One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggests that everything we do is the subtotal of our reinforcement history and that anything we do is the result of our conditioning history. This ignores any possible influence of free will. This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making
What is the social learning theory?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcment, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. Bandura agreed that behaviour is learned from experience but also he proposed a different way that people learn which is through imitation.
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
What is identification?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model. They may not always be present and this has effects in the media. They tend to be attractive or have a high status.
What is modelling?
Modelling is imitating the behaviour of the role model from the observers perspective. But from the role models perspective it is a precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
What are the assumptions of the social learning theory?
Bandura agreed that people learn frome experience however social learning theory describes how we learn through imitating others. They also describe how people learn both directly and indirectly
What is vicarious reinforcment?
For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may imitate this behaviour if it is seen to be reinforced. They observe both the behaviour and the consequences of said behaviour
What are mediational processes and their role?
SLT is often described as a bridge between cognitive and behaviourist approach as it focuses on mental factors are involved in learning. The mental processes intervene with the learning. Bandura identified 4
Attention-The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention-How well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction-The ability of the observer to perform a behaviour
Motivation-The will to perform the behaviour which is determined by whether it is punished or not
The first two refer to learning and the last two refer to performing which shows how learning and performing don’t need to happen together
Describe Banduras first study?
He recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in aggressive ways towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. These children were later recorded playing with the Bobo doll and they behaved aggressively in comparison to the children who had not seen the behaviour
Describe Banduras second study
Bandura and Walters showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards a Bobo doll. One group of childreb saw the adult praised and the other saw them punished. A control group saw no consequence. When given the doll to play with the first group showed aggression, follwed by the third group and then the second
Evaluate social learning theory
One strength is that it recognises the strength of cognitive approaches. Conditioning can’t offer an adequate account for learning on their own. Humans and animals store behaviours to make judgements about others. Bandura described how it would be hazardous to act based on out own actions Therefore it provides a comprehensive explanation
Counterpoint: SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to biological factors. Bandura claimed batural biological factors had a role but only focused on environment. Suggests that bilogical factors were under-emphasised in the SLT
Evaluate SLT
One limitation is that the evidence is based of lab studies. This means that the children may have responded to demand characteristics. It has been suggested that because the main aim of the doll is to strike it the children were acting how they thought was expected. This suggests that the research may not tell us much about how children act in real life
Evaluate SLT
Another strength is that it has been applied to many real-world behaviours. It has the advantage of being able to exlpain cultural differences in behaviour. Imitation etc can provide an explanation for how children learn which shows how cultural norms are transferred through society. This suggests how the SLT has value as it can explain real world behaviour.
What is the cognitive approach?
It means that mental processes are involved in affect behaviour. It is a direct contrast to the behaviourist approach as it atrgues that mental processes can and should be scientifically studied. They studied the areas that were previously neglected including memory, perception and thinking. These processes are private and cannot be observed so psychologists make inferences.
What are internal mental processes?
‘private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
Describe the role of schema
Schema are a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processes. They are developed from experience. Babies are born with a simple motor schema that consists of innate behaviours. As we get older our schema becomes sophisticated. They allow us to process information quickly and works as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed
What is inference?
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way that mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Explainn theoretical models
Theoretical models are abstract. They are a framework that researchers use to structure a study process and plan to approach a specific research enquiry. They are diagrammatic and a good example of a theoretical model is the information processing approach which suggests that information flows through in a set of sequences.
Explain computer models
Computer models represent concrete things. An actual computer model would involve programming a computer to see if the instructions produce a similiar output. Are useful in the development of thinking machines or AI
Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. With the recent revolutions of MRI and PET scans sciemtists have been able to identify the neurological basis of mental processes for example research into semantic memory and research into which area of the brain causes OCD. This has expanded recently to include the use of computer models this has led to the devlopment of mind-mapping techniques
Evaluate the cognitive approach
One strength is that it use objective scientific methods. They emplor highly controlled and rigorous study methods to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable data. This means that they have a credible scientific basis.
Counterpoint: Relies on the inference of mental processes rather than direct observation which occasionally means that it becomes too abstract. As well as this they heavily rely on artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday experience. Therefore they may lack external validity
Evaluate cognitive approach
Another strength is that there is real-world application. Most dominant approach in psychology todayand is applied to a wide range of psychological processes ie it has made an important contribution to AI and treatment of depression. This therefore supports the value of the cognitive approach
Evaluate the cognitive approach
One limitation is that it is based of machine reductionism. There are similiarities between the human mind and a computer, however it ignores the influence of emotion and how this affects our ability to process information. This suggests it may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
Suggests that everything is at first biological so we have to look at biological structures. Believes the mind is in the brain meaning all thoughts and behaviours are physcial
Describe neurochemistry
Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain. Much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain which occurs using neurotransmitters. An imbalance has been indicated a possible cause of mental illness
Describe the genetic basis of behaviour
Psychological characteristics are inherited in the same way as height or eye colour. Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological features have a genetic basis. This ia achieved using concordance rate. If a characteristic is genetic we would expect all identical twins to have it whereas the same would not be true for non-identical twins
Using an example, distiguish between genotype and phenotype
Genotype is a persons actual genetic make-up whereas phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical representation. Despite having the same genes twins may express differentely and exampke of this would be PKU which is an inherited disease.
Describe evolution and behaviour
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. Main principle is that it genetically determines behaviour that enhances an individuals survival i.e. they select the one with the most desirable characteristics for example farmers select the cows that have the highest milk yield and the possessor of these traits is more likely to reproduce
Evaluate the biological approach
One strength is that it has real world application. The increased understanding of neurochemicals is associated with drugs to treat serious mental disorders for example antidepressants. This means that people may be able to live a more normal life that others as they can use drugs instead of staying in hospital
Counterpoint: Although they are successful for many people they do not work for everyone i.e. studies have shown that most drugs were more effective that placebos the researchers concluded that the results of the real thing were mainly modest. Challenges the approach as it suggests that not all cases can be treated biologically
Evaluate the biological appraoch
Another strength is that it uses scientific methods of investigation. They use highly objective measures, these include scanning techniques such as PETs and fMRI. This means that they are not open to bias. Therefore this approach produces reliable data
Evaluate the biological approach
One limitation is that it is determinist. It sees human behaviour as governed purely by genetic causes in which we have no control as we have more control over environment. As well as this it also becomes problematic for things that we see as a crime
Describe the psychodynamic approach
A POV that describes different forces most that are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour
Describe the role of the unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour. It is a vast store of biological instincts and drives that influence our behaviour. They also contain deep and disturbing thoughts. They can be assessed via slips of the tongue and dreams
What is the ID?
Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that provide instant gratification. It also operates on the pleasure principle. It is present at birth but throughout life it continues to gratify it’s needs
What is the ego?
The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of our superego and id. Develops around the age of 2 and it resolves conflicts it does this through defence mechanisms
What is the superego?
The moralistic part of our personality which represents ideal self. It develops around the age of 5. It is based on the morality principle and it represents our moral standards
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage the conflict between the id and the superego. These include repression, denial and displacement
What is repression?
Forcing a distressing memory out the conscious mind
What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality
What is displacement?
Transferring feelings from a source of distressing emotions onto a substitute target
What are the psychosexual stages?
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
What is the oral stage?
From ages 0-1 years, focus of pleasure is in the mouth i.e. mother breast. The consequences include smoking and sarcastic
What is the anal stage?
From 1-3 years old. The focus of the pleasure is on the anus and expelling faeces. Consequences of being anal retentive is being obssessive and consequences of anal expulsive is being thoughtless and messy.
What is the phallic stage?
From ages 3 -6 years old. Focus of pleasure in the genital area. The child experiences the oedipus complex and the electra complex. Consequences of phallic personality is being narcissitic
What is the latency stage?
Earlier conflicts are repressed
What is the genital stage?
Seexual desire becomes conscious alongside puberty. Consequences can include difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
One strength is that it has real world application as it introduced psychtherapy. He brought in psychoanlysis which treated mental disorders through things such as dream analysis. It helped by allowing people to bring thoughts to their conscious mind, and it a forerunner to psychology today.
However: It is deemed as inappropriate for any severe mental disorders. Some disorders reduce someones consciousness and grip on reality. Suggests it may not apply to all theiroes
Evaluate psychodynamic approach
Another strength is Freud’s ability to explain human behaviour. It has an influence on western treatment. It was dominant in the first half of the 20th century and it is important for drawing dictinctions between our childhood and the way we behave now. This suggests that overall it has has a good impact
Evaluate psychodynamic approach
One limitation is that much of it is untestable. It is emprically tested, making it impossible. Furthermore they were idographic so cannot be universally applied
What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination
What is free will?
All other approaches are deterministic as they believe that factors outside of our control cause our behaviour for example the cognitive approach claims we are free to choose our own thoughts. the humanistic approach states that humans have free will and a self-determining. We are still affected by external forces however we are also active agents who determine our own development
What is Maslow’s hierachy of needs?
A hierachy of needs that motivate our behaviour in order to achieve our final goal of self-actualisation. At the bottom it is physiological needs such as food and water, second is safety and security and then belonginess and finally self esteem
What is self-actualisation?
Most people have an innate desire to achieve their full potential. All four levels of the pyramid must be completed to gain the last level. this starts from being a baby. It is regarded as personal growth and this is essential in being a human
What is the self, congruence and conditions of worth?
Carl Rogers argues that for a personal growth to be achieved a persons ideal self must be congruent to their self. If too big a gap is achieved then a person will not be able to achieve self-actualisation. In order to reduce this gap Rogers came up with client-centred therapy to help people cope with the demands of everyday living. he argues that most of the issues we experience we begin in childhood due to lack of unconditional positive regard
Evaluate the humanistic approach
One strength is that it is not reductive. behaviourists explain it as a set of stimulus and response units, biological psychologists show us to be based of physiological processes. In contrast the humanistic approach uses holism and that the whole person makes up the behaviour
Counterpoint: Reductionist approaches are more scientific as we have IV’s and DV’s. relatively few concepts can be analysed
Evaluate the humanistic approach
Another strength is that it is a positive approach. It has been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and bringing as positive image back into psychology. Humanistic psychology sees people as badically good and free to work towards their own goal
Evaluate the humanistic approach
One limitation is that it may be culturally bias. many of the ideas associated with this would be self actualisation and personal growth which are features of individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs to a group so it does not align with the ideals of humanistic psychology
