Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

What was Wundt’s lab?

Answer 1

In 1879, Wundt opened the first lab that was entirely dedicated to psychology. His work is significant as it marked the beginning of scientific psychology seperating it from its broader philosophical roots.Wundts aim was to try and analyse the nature of human consciousness as this represented the first systematic attempt to study it under controlled conditions.

Question 2

What were Wundts standardised procedure?

Answer 2

One of his main objectives was to develop theories about mental processes such as language. They recorded various stimuli that they had experience with such as different objects or sounds. He would divide them into three sections: Thoughts, Images and Sensations

Question 3

What is introspection?

Answer 3

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 4

Evaluate Wundts science

Answer 4

One strength of his research is that some of his research were systematic and well-controlled. They were recorded to reduce extrenuous variables and all procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so all participants were tested the same. Therefore his approach can be suggested to be a forerunner to scientific research now.

Question 5

Give another evaluation of Wundts science

Answer 5

One limitation is that other aspects of his research would be considered unscientific today. He relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. This data is subjective and some may have hidden their thoughts. It is difficult to establish laws of behaviour from this data. Suggests they would not meet the required standrad of scientific enquiry

Question 6

What is the timeline for approaches in psychology?

Answer 6

17th Century-19th Century: Psychology is branch of philosophy. It is named experimental psychology
1879: Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology lab in Germany as psychology emerges as its own discipline
1900s: Sigmund Freud emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind and comes up with the psychodynamic approach. He also develops his own therapy (Psychoanalysis) and shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflict in the mind
1913: John.B.Watson writes ‘Psychology as the behaviourist views it’. Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach
1950s: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow developed the humanistic approach which emphasises the idea of free will.
1950s: The introduction of the digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor for the human mind. The cognitive approach reintroduces mental processes into psychology but is much more scientific
1960s: Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory providing a bridge between cognitive science and behaviourists approach
1980s: Biological approch begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific process in psychology
21st Century: Neuroscience becomes a discipline which brings together all of them

Question 7

Outline the behaviourist approach

Answer 7

The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying the behaviour that can be measured and it ignored mental processes as they were seen as irrelevant. Early behaviourists rejected things such as introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague, so behaviourists relied on lab studies to have more controlled research. They believe that all behaviour is learned by experience. They identified two processes including classical and operant conditioning

Question 8

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 8

Classical conditioning describes learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together. An unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are paired together. The neutral stimulus eventually intiates the same response as the unconditioned stimulus

Question 9

Outline Pavlovs research.

Answer 9

Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell if the bell was presented as the same time as their food. Gradually they learned to associate the bell (neutral stimulus) with the sound of the food (unconditioned stimulus) which created a conditioned response.

Question 10

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 10

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences. Possible consequences include reinforcement or punishment

Question 11

Outline Skinners research

Answer 11

Skinner conducted research with rats and pigeons in specifically designed cases including Skinner Boxes. Everytime a rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with food pellets. From then on the animal would continue the behaviour. She also showed how they would be conditioned to perform the behaviour if the consequences were negative for example an electric shock.

Question 12

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 12

Receiving a reward for a certain behaviour is performed ie praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class

Question 13

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 13

Occurs when an animal avoids something unpleasant and the outcome is a positive experience for example handing in an essay to avoid being told off.

Question 14

What is punishment?

Answer 14

Punishment is an unpleasant consequence for a behaviour for example being shouted at by a teacher for talking in a lesson

Question 15

Evaluate the behaviourist approach

Answer 15

One strength is that it is based of controlled research. Behaviourists focus on the measurement of behaviour in a highly controlled lab setting by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus response units where all extrenuous variables were removed which allows a cause and effect relationship to be established. This gives the experiments scientific creditibility.
Counterpoint: However this means that the behaviourists may have oversimplified the research. They have reduced the important factors of human thought on the learning of behaviour. Other approached draw onto mental processes of involved in learning. This suggests that learning is mroe complex than once suggested.

Question 16

Give another evaluation of the behaviourist approach

Answer 16

Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has real-life application. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. It has also been applied to phobias. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach as it is a widespread application

Question 17

Give a limitation of the behaviourist approach

Answer 17

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggests that everything we do is the subtotal of our reinforcement history and that anything we do is the result of our conditioning history. This ignores any possible influence of free will. This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making

Question 18

What is the social learning theory?

Answer 18

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcment, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. Bandura agreed that behaviour is learned from experience but also he proposed a different way that people learn which is through imitation.

Question 19

What is imitation?

Answer 19

Copying the behaviour of others

Question 20

What is identification?

Answer 20

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model. They may not always be present and this has effects in the media. They tend to be attractive or have a high status.

Question 21

What is modelling?

Answer 21

Modelling is imitating the behaviour of the role model from the observers perspective. But from the role models perspective it is a precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

Question 22

What are the assumptions of the social learning theory?

Answer 22

Bandura agreed that people learn frome experience however social learning theory describes how we learn through imitating others. They also describe how people learn both directly and indirectly

Question 23

What is vicarious reinforcment?

Answer 23

For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may imitate this behaviour if it is seen to be reinforced. They observe both the behaviour and the consequences of said behaviour

Question 24

What are mediational processes and their role?

Answer 24

SLT is often described as a bridge between cognitive and behaviourist approach as it focuses on mental factors are involved in learning. The mental processes intervene with the learning. Bandura identified 4
Attention-The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention-How well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction-The ability of the observer to perform a behaviour
Motivation-The will to perform the behaviour which is determined by whether it is punished or not
The first two refer to learning and the last two refer to performing which shows how learning and performing don’t need to happen together

Question 25

Describe Banduras first study?

Answer 25

He recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in aggressive ways towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. These children were later recorded playing with the Bobo doll and they behaved aggressively in comparison to the children who had not seen the behaviour

Question 26

Describe Banduras second study

Answer 26

Bandura and Walters showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards a Bobo doll. One group of childreb saw the adult praised and the other saw them punished. A control group saw no consequence. When given the doll to play with the first group showed aggression, follwed by the third group and then the second

Question 27

Evaluate social learning theory

Answer 27

One strength is that it recognises the strength of cognitive approaches. Conditioning can't offer an adequate account for learning on their own. Humans and animals store behaviours to make judgements about others. Bandura described how it would be hazardous to act based on out own actions Therefore it provides a comprehensive explanation Counterpoint: SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to biological factors. Bandura claimed batural biological factors had a role but only focused on environment. Suggests that bilogical factors were under-emphasised in the SLT

Question 28

Evaluate SLT

Answer 28

One limitation is that the evidence is based of lab studies. This means that the children may have responded to demand characteristics. It has been suggested that because the main aim of the doll is to strike it the children were acting how they thought was expected. This suggests that the research may not tell us much about how children act in real life

Question 29

Evaluate SLT

Answer 29

Another strength is that it has been applied to many real-world behaviours. It has the advantage of being able to exlpain cultural differences in behaviour. Imitation etc can provide an explanation for how children learn which shows how cultural norms are transferred through society. This suggests how the SLT has value as it can explain real world behaviour.

Question 30

What is the cognitive approach?

Answer 30

It means that mental processes are involved in affect behaviour. It is a direct contrast to the behaviourist approach as it atrgues that mental processes can and should be scientifically studied. They studied the areas that were previously neglected including memory, perception and thinking. These processes are private and cannot be observed so psychologists make inferences.

Question 31

What are internal mental processes?

Answer 31

'private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

Question 32

Describe the role of schema

Answer 32

Schema are a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processes. They are developed from experience. Babies are born with a simple motor schema that consists of innate behaviours. As we get older our schema becomes sophisticated. They allow us to process information quickly and works as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed

Question 33

What is inference?

Answer 33

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way that mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

Question 34

Explainn theoretical models

Answer 34

Theoretical models are abstract. They are a framework that researchers use to structure a study process and plan to approach a specific research enquiry. They are diagrammatic and a good example of a theoretical model is the information processing approach which suggests that information flows through in a set of sequences.

Question 35

Explain computer models

Answer 35

Computer models represent concrete things. An actual computer model would involve programming a computer to see if the instructions produce a similiar output. Are useful in the development of thinking machines or AI

Question 36

Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 36

Neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. With the recent revolutions of MRI and PET scans sciemtists have been able to identify the neurological basis of mental processes for example research into semantic memory and research into which area of the brain causes OCD. This has expanded recently to include the use of computer models this has led to the devlopment of mind-mapping techniques

Question 37

Evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 37

One strength is that it use objective scientific methods. They emplor highly controlled and rigorous study methods to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable data. This means that they have a credible scientific basis. Counterpoint: Relies on the inference of mental processes rather than direct observation which occasionally means that it becomes too abstract. As well as this they heavily rely on artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday experience. Therefore they may lack external validity

Question 38

Evaluate cognitive approach

Answer 38

Another strength is that there is real-world application. Most dominant approach in psychology todayand is applied to a wide range of psychological processes ie it has made an important contribution to AI and treatment of depression. This therefore supports the value of the cognitive approach

Question 39

Evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 39

One limitation is that it is based of machine reductionism. There are similiarities between the human mind and a computer, however it ignores the influence of emotion and how this affects our ability to process information. This suggests it may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach

Question 40

What are the assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 40

Suggests that everything is at first biological so we have to look at biological structures. Believes the mind is in the brain meaning all thoughts and behaviours are physcial

Question 41

Describe neurochemistry

Answer 41

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain. Much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain which occurs using neurotransmitters. An imbalance has been indicated a possible cause of mental illness

Question 42

Describe the genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 42

Psychological characteristics are inherited in the same way as height or eye colour. Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological features have a genetic basis. This ia achieved using concordance rate. If a characteristic is genetic we would expect all identical twins to have it whereas the same would not be true for non-identical twins

Question 43

Using an example, distiguish between genotype and phenotype

Answer 43

Genotype is a persons actual genetic make-up whereas phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical representation. Despite having the same genes twins may express differentely and exampke of this would be PKU which is an inherited disease.

Question 44

Describe evolution and behaviour

Answer 44

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. Main principle is that it genetically determines behaviour that enhances an individuals survival i.e. they select the one with the most desirable characteristics for example farmers select the cows that have the highest milk yield and the possessor of these traits is more likely to reproduce

Question 45

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 45

One strength is that it has real world application. The increased understanding of neurochemicals is associated with drugs to treat serious mental disorders for example antidepressants. This means that people may be able to live a more normal life that others as they can use drugs instead of staying in hospital Counterpoint: Although they are successful for many people they do not work for everyone i.e. studies have shown that most drugs were more effective that placebos the researchers concluded that the results of the real thing were mainly modest. Challenges the approach as it suggests that not all cases can be treated biologically

Question 46

Evaluate the biological appraoch

Answer 46

Another strength is that it uses scientific methods of investigation. They use highly objective measures, these include scanning techniques such as PETs and fMRI. This means that they are not open to bias. Therefore this approach produces reliable data

Question 47

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 47

One limitation is that it is determinist. It sees human behaviour as governed purely by genetic causes in which we have no control as we have more control over environment. As well as this it also becomes problematic for things that we see as a crime

Question 48

Describe the psychodynamic approach

Answer 48

A POV that describes different forces most that are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour

Question 49

Describe the role of the unconscious

Answer 49

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which directs much of our behaviour. It is a vast store of biological instincts and drives that influence our behaviour. They also contain deep and disturbing thoughts. They can be assessed via slips of the tongue and dreams

Question 50

What is the ID?

Answer 50

Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that provide instant gratification. It also operates on the pleasure principle. It is present at birth but throughout life it continues to gratify it's needs

Question 51

What is the ego?

Answer 51

The 'reality check' that balances the conflicting demands of our superego and id. Develops around the age of 2 and it resolves conflicts it does this through defence mechanisms

Question 52

What is the superego?

Answer 52

The moralistic part of our personality which represents ideal self. It develops around the age of 5. It is based on the morality principle and it represents our moral standards

Question 53

What are defence mechanisms?

Answer 53

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage the conflict between the id and the superego. These include repression, denial and displacement

Question 54

What is repression?

Answer 54

Forcing a distressing memory out the conscious mind

Question 55

What is denial?

Answer 55

Refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality

Question 56

What is displacement?

Answer 56

Transferring feelings from a source of distressing emotions onto a substitute target

Question 57

What are the psychosexual stages?

Answer 57

Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development

Question 58

What is the oral stage?

Answer 58

From ages 0-1 years, focus of pleasure is in the mouth i.e. mother breast. The consequences include smoking and sarcastic

Question 59

What is the anal stage?

Answer 59

From 1-3 years old. The focus of the pleasure is on the anus and expelling faeces. Consequences of being anal retentive is being obssessive and consequences of anal expulsive is being thoughtless and messy.

Question 60

What is the phallic stage?

Answer 60

From ages 3 -6 years old. Focus of pleasure in the genital area. The child experiences the oedipus complex and the electra complex. Consequences of phallic personality is being narcissitic

Question 61

What is the latency stage?

Answer 61

Earlier conflicts are repressed

Question 62

What is the genital stage?

Answer 62

Seexual desire becomes conscious alongside puberty. Consequences can include difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 63

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 63

One strength is that it has real world application as it introduced psychtherapy. He brought in psychoanlysis which treated mental disorders through things such as dream analysis. It helped by allowing people to bring thoughts to their conscious mind, and it a forerunner to psychology today. However: It is deemed as inappropriate for any severe mental disorders. Some disorders reduce someones consciousness and grip on reality. Suggests it may not apply to all theiroes

Question 64

Evaluate psychodynamic approach

Answer 64

Another strength is Freud's ability to explain human behaviour. It has an influence on western treatment. It was dominant in the first half of the 20th century and it is important for drawing dictinctions between our childhood and the way we behave now. This suggests that overall it has has a good impact

Question 65

Evaluate psychodynamic approach

Answer 65

One limitation is that much of it is untestable. It is emprically tested, making it impossible. Furthermore they were idographic so cannot be universally applied

Question 66

What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 66

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination

Question 67

What is free will?

Answer 67

All other approaches are deterministic as they believe that factors outside of our control cause our behaviour for example the cognitive approach claims we are free to choose our own thoughts. the humanistic approach states that humans have free will and a self-determining. We are still affected by external forces however we are also active agents who determine our own development

Question 68

What is Maslow's hierachy of needs?

Answer 68

A hierachy of needs that motivate our behaviour in order to achieve our final goal of self-actualisation. At the bottom it is physiological needs such as food and water, second is safety and security and then belonginess and finally self esteem

Question 69

What is self-actualisation?

Answer 69

Most people have an innate desire to achieve their full potential. All four levels of the pyramid must be completed to gain the last level. this starts from being a baby. It is regarded as personal growth and this is essential in being a human

Question 70

What is the self, congruence and conditions of worth?

Answer 70

Carl Rogers argues that for a personal growth to be achieved a persons ideal self must be congruent to their self. If too big a gap is achieved then a person will not be able to achieve self-actualisation. In order to reduce this gap Rogers came up with client-centred therapy to help people cope with the demands of everyday living. he argues that most of the issues we experience we begin in childhood due to lack of unconditional positive regard

Question 71

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 71

One strength is that it is not reductive. behaviourists explain it as a set of stimulus and response units, biological psychologists show us to be based of physiological processes. In contrast the humanistic approach uses holism and that the whole person makes up the behaviour Counterpoint: Reductionist approaches are more scientific as we have IV's and DV's. relatively few concepts can be analysed

Question 72

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 72

Another strength is that it is a positive approach. It has been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and bringing as positive image back into psychology. Humanistic psychology sees people as badically good and free to work towards their own goal

Question 73

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 73

One limitation is that it may be culturally bias. many of the ideas associated with this would be self actualisation and personal growth which are features of individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs to a group so it does not align with the ideals of humanistic psychology