approaches in psychology Flashcards
define psychology
scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how these are affected by internal and external factors
what did Descartes suggest
in the 17th century, he suggested the mind and body represented dualism- they interact in different ways to produce different behaviours
what did wundt contribute to psychology
- in 1879, opened an Institute for Experimental psychology (first experimental laboratory)
- write the first psychology textbook (principles of physiological psychology)
- introduced introspection
define structuralism
break down human thoughts and experiences into basic components
define introspection
analysing your own thoughts and feelings internally
what were wundt’s methods
noting down conscious thoughts and attempting to break these down into structures to help study sensation and perception, kept everything highly scientific
define reductionism
things can be reduced to simple cause and effect processes
what was the problems with wundts ideas and introspection
- doesn’t explain how the mind works
- quite subjective
- doesn’t provide data that can be used reliably and can be compared
- social desirability bias
- delay between conscious experience and reporting it
wundt evaluation points
- relied primarily on non observable responses like perception so it was hard to replicate results
- introspection isn’t accurate as implicit studies means we have little knowledge on the causes of our behaviour
+ introspection is useful when measuring happiness- help improve quality of life
+ tried to keep highly scientific- theoretically similar results produced
define science
methodology of testing knowledge claims thorough empirical observation
features of science
- cycle of experimenting, analysing and developing scientific laws
- uses publication, peer review, falsification and replication
- objective
- has controls
- predictable
- hypothesis testing
- replicable
define falsification
disprove yourself in order to be certain of your results
define empiricism
knowledge coming from observation and experience alone and doesn’t rely on belief
define assumption of determinism
all behaviour is caused by something
define assumption of predictability
we should be able to predict our behaviour
what are learning approaches
human behaviour comes from the environment and experience
behaviourist and social learning approach
assumptions of behaviourist approach
- all behaviour is learned as we are born as a blank slate (tabula rasa)
- animal and humans learn in the same way so we can use animals to explain human behaviour
- only observable behaviour is measured scientifically
- thought processes are subjective and difficult to test
define classical conditioning
association of two events can lead to a response being transferred from one to the other
pavlov’s classical conditioning research
before conditioning- certain stimulus (food) triggers UCR (salivation) and NS (bell) has no response
during conditioning- UCS with NE triggers UCR
after conditioning- CS leads to CR
define extinction in classical conditioning
CS is no longer paired with UCS so CR disappears because it is repeatedly not repeated with UCS
define spontaneous recovery in classically conditioning
previously extinct CR comes back when CS is presented again after a period of time
define higher order conditioning in classical conditioning
new CS produces CR because animal associated it with original CS
define generalisation in classical conditioning
similar stimuli produces CR
define discrimination in classical conditioning
stimuli similar to CS is moved away from producing CR
evaluation of classical conditoning
+ has face validity as we have all experienced learning through association
+ practical application through systematic desensitisation
- learning animals can’t be extrapolated to humans
define operant conditioning
consequences of behaviours will determine whether it will be related or not
define positive reinforcement
produces a pleasant reward
define negative reinforcement
takes away something unpleasant or behave in a way to avoid punishment
define positive punishment
adding something unpleasant
define negative punishment
taking something pleasant away
skinners operant conditoning research
series of experiments on rats in skinners box and when they pressed a lever, they were rewards with food which led them to learn whenever they press it they get food
define continuous reinforcement
positively reinforced every time a behaviour occurs, which makes the behaviour become extinct faster
define fixed ratio reinforcement
behaviour reinforced when it occurs a specific number of times
define fixed interval reinforcement
behaviour reinforced after a fixed time interval
define variable ratio reinforcement
behaviour reinforced after an unpredicted number of times
evaluation of operant conditioning
+ use of experimental methods and has levels of control to accurately measure cause and effect
+ practical application and face validity like jn schools
- cannot extrapolate to humans Skinner argues free will is an illusion
- issue of ethics and how far we should shape behaviour
evaluation of behaviourism
+ scientific and highly controlled to show cause and effect
+ used to determine and predict behaviour
+ real world application
- accused of ignoring other levels of explanation
- cannot extrapolate animal findings onto humans due to genetics and free will
- ethical concerns
assumptions of social learning
- behaviour can be acquired through direct experience by observing others
- observing reinforcement and punishment others receive will influence whether we response similarly
define imitation in social learning
- behaviour is produced when observed
- simulated behaviour- not copied exactly
- whether we choose to imitate depends on characteristics of the model, perceived ability to perform the behaviour, observed consequences of the behaviour
define identification in social learning
- extent to which individual relates to model and feels as if they are similar or wish to be like them
-more likely to experience same outcomes
define modelling in social learning
- individuals must carry out the attitude of be learned
- live model- parent, teacher, peer etc
- symbolic model- portrayed in media or film
meditational processes
- attention- have to pay attention in order to learn
- retention- remember what happened
- reproduction- ability to reproduce
- motivation- evaluate the direct or indirect results
define vicarious reinforcement
what the observer sees the model receiving
bandura et al research procedure
- research whether aggression can be learned through imitation
- 36 boys and 36 girls aged 3-6 years old
- rated before had depending on aggression so they were all equal
- put into 3 conditions- non aggressive, aggressive and control
- half of the subjects had a role model of the same gender
- after watching the model, they were taken to another room where they couldn’t play with the toys
- after 2 mins, they were left for 20 mins in the other room with the bobo doll
bandura et al research conclusions
- children observing aggressive model reproduce. good deal of physical and verbal aggression- 1/3
- boys imitated more physical aggression
- children were more likely to imitate the model if they were of the same sex
evaluation of social learning theory
+ emphasis importance of cognitive factors in learning as it recognises meditational processes
+ practical application that can also be used to explain cultural differences and other influences
- low ecological validity and increases chance of demand characteristics
- underestimates influence of biological factors
define cognitive approach
behaviour as a result of cognitive processes like thoughts, beliefs and perceptions
assumptions of cognitive approach
- study processes like perception, memory, thinking, attention and problems solving
- should be student science scientifically
- similar to computer with inputs processes and outputs
how do we study internal mental processes
infer what is going on by measuring behaviour and make an assumption depending on how we interpret it
define schema
cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain
features of schemas
- help make sense of new information by filling in the gaps
- for events and roles to guide behaviour and take shortcuts
- may exclude information that doesn’t fit our established ideas
- can cause stereotypes
- become more sophisticated through experience
- when information is consistent it is assimilated into the schema
- when information is inconsistent then accommodation occurs when schema has to change go resolve the problem
define theoretical model
simplified and usually pictorial representations of a mental process
define computer model
process of using computer analogies to represent human cognition
how can cognition be compared to a computer model
- information receiver through senses and processed by various systems
- computer metaphors like encoding, processing and retrieval
- works sequentially and in parallel
why cant cognition be compared to a computer
- emotional and motivational factors
- free well
- humans have unlimited but unreliable memory
define cognitive neuroscience
area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions
how can cognitive neuroscience be investigated
electrophysiology- using electric and magnetic fields to measure brains activity
neuroimaging- pinpointing areas of brains that are active during tasks using PET and MRI scans
lesion studies- looking at people with brain damage to see how behaviour is affected
features of cognitive neuroscience
- cognition produced by integration of neural mechanisms, chemistry and brain structure
- started with Broca’s discovery in mid 19th century linked to speech production
evaluation of cognitive neuroscience
+ real world application with links to mental illnesses like schizophrenia
+ uses objective, scientific methods
- technology is not 100% reliable with calibration and temperature
- machine reductionism
strengths of cognitive approach
- real world application as it has helped to develop therapies for depression for example
- scientific as it uses brain scans and is based on empirical evidence
- considers mental processes
- soft determinism and allows humans to have more influence over decisions
weaknesses of cognitive approach
- reductionist when compared to computers
- ignore emotions and motivation as it fails to tell us why cognitive processes take place
- lack ecological validity as experiments are usually artificial
define biological approach
explores how behaviour is influenced by genetics, biochemistry and brain anatomy
assumptions of biological approach
- humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes
- in theory we can explain all behaviour using biological causes and unwanted behaviour could be modified or removed using biological treatments
- experimental research on animals can inform us about humans because we are biologically similar
- the mind is the brain and aren’t seperate
influence of biological structures on behaviour
- consists of neurones which can send and transmit electrical impulses
- nervous system is CNS and PNS
define neurotransmitter
chemical messenger that can jump the synapse
define the two types of neurotransmitters
excitatory- trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neurones and stimulate brain into action
inhibitory- slow down the nerve impulses in order to calm the brain
define endocrine system and its function
network of glands throughout the body which can release hormones into the bloodstream and help regulate the physiological processes in the body
define heredity
passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes
define genotype
genetic code that is “written” in the DNA of an individuals cells
define phenotype
observable characteristics of the individual that results from this inherited information
influence of genes on behaviour
- phenotype is the interaction of genes with other genes and environment
- work is carried out on monozygotic twins as they are genetically identical and have a higher chance of sharing behaviours (concordance)
- links to presence or absence of genes to mental health disorders or psychological traits
define heritability
proportion of the characteristics that is seen as being genetic
evaluation of biological approach strengths
- practical application with development of drugs like for depression
- scientific like brain scans EEG and PET
- concordance rates are higher between monozygotic twins as they share same genes
evaluation of biological approach weaknesses
- influence of culture and environment needs to be taken into account
- environment is constantly changing but we are not evolving instantaneously to match
- reductionist
- biological determinism as we are expected to have no free will, complicated responsibility when it comes to criminals
define psychodynamic approach
explain behaviours as a results of unconscious processes, suggested by Freud
assumptions of psychodynamic approach
- mind is made up or conscious (1/7), preconscious and unconscious (6/7)
- behaviours is determined by psychological factors rather than biological or environmental
- people are born with basic instincts and needs
- strong emphasis on unconscious motives, desires and drives
- stressed importance of early childhood memories and if conflict arises during psychodynamic stages
- repressed memories help drive our behaviour
define conscious mind
what we are directly aware of
define preconcious mind and how we can access it
memories or thoughts we are not directly aware of but can be accessed through dreams or Freudian slips of the tongue
define unconscious mind
what we cannot easily access
how does structure of tripartite personality affect our behaviour
id and superego constantly in conflict and improper balance leads to anxiety and mental disorders
explain id
- operates on pleasure principle
- libido- biological energy created by reproductive instincts
- present from birth
- demand immediate gratification
explain ego
- operates in reality principle
- mediated between id and superego through defence mechanisms
- develops from 18 months
explain superego
- operates on morality principle
- conscience internalisation of societal rules
- decided which behaviours are permissible
- develops from 3 years
- learn from same sex parent
define defence mechanisms
ways to protect us from anxiety by operating unconsciously and distorting reality
define repression
hiding an unpleasant memory of experience in the unconscious mind
define displacement
feelings like anger which are redirected towards a substitute
define projection
projecting unconscious unacceptable characteristics on to othets
define denial
refusal to accept reality
define sublimation
unacceptable desires are channelled into positive behaviour like art or sports
define regression
person reverted to an earlier stage of development and acts childish
define rationalisation
creating false excuses for one’s unacceptable thoughts and behaviour
why are the psychosexual stages important
- driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido)
- individual experiences tension comes from build up of libido and pleasure comes from its discharge
- at each stage energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body
- if conflict occurs at any stage, or we have too little or too much at that stage, we become fixated
psychosexual oral stage
- 0-2 years
- mouth is focal point
- sucking, biting
anal psychosexual stage
- 2-3 years
- anus is focal point
- toilet training and control over expulsion of waste
phallic psychosexual stage
- 3-6 years
- genitals is focal point
- oedipus and electra complex
latent psychosexual stage
- 6-12 years
- repression of sexual energy
genital psychosexual stage
- 12+ years
- genitals is focal point
- sexual desires are conscious
define oedipus complex
male unconsciously wishes to possess their mother leading to castration anxiety which is punishment from father
define electra complex
female unconsciously wants their father so they blame their mother for their castrated state and identifies with mother to take female gender role
evaluation of psychodynamic approach strengths
- first theory to focus on psychological causes of disorders instead of physical causes like evil spirits
- offers methods of therapy like psychoanalysis which help to understand causes of unconscious conflicts and can treat mild neuroses. psychologists found that FECT produced greater emphasis on client therapist relationship and is a promising approach for improving outcomes
- emphasis on how experiences in early childhood affect later development
- some scientific methodology
evaluation of psychodynamic approach weaknesses
- lacks scientific methods and evidence
- subjective
- unconscious mind cannot be accessed so theories are unfalsifiable
- psychoanalysis may take a long time and can be very expensive
- over emphasis on experience
- ignores other approaches like biological
- problem with theories developing from case studies
- psychoanalysis is gender biased
- psycho analysis is culturally biased- research shows many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way so can’t be applied elsewhere
define humanistic approach
human experience is subjective and is driven by free will to choose our behaviour
main assumptions of humanistic approach
- emphasis free will
- each individual is unique so we should focus on each individual experience rather than trying to generalise- idiographic approach
- people should be viewed holistically
- inherently good and wants to achieve self actualisation
- humans can make significant personal choice within the constraints imported by other forces like society
- rely on self report methods and how can individual reports should be treated as evidence
- carl rogers and abraham maslow
define free will
people have the choice to select and decide their own behaviour without the influence of other factors
define self-actualisation
innate desire to become the best version of themselves through personal and psychological growth
explain maslows hierarchy of needs
how human needs can be categories and prioritied
- each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need
- bottom of the pyramid are the most essential psychological needs that we need to survive
describe maslows hierarchy of needs
self actualisation- mortality, acceptance, full potential
esteem- self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect
love and belonging- friendship, family, sexual intimacy
safety- health, family, employment, money
physiological- food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis
define self concept
how we perceive ourselves
define ideal self
who we feel we should/want to be
Rogers theory on two things we need
positive regard from other people and a feeling of self worth (what we think about ourselves) which develop in childhood
define congruence
similarity between ideal self, and how they perceived themselves which leads to feelings of self-worth
define incongruence
difference between ideal self and how they perceive themselves which leads to depression and we use defence mechanism like denial in order to feel less threatened
define unconditional positive regard
a person is accepted for who they are irrespective of any other factors that might alter this
define conditional positive regard
A person is accepted only if they do what others want them to do/be- leads to condition of worth which is when they only experience self acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set
features of humanistic counselling and therapy
- uncover distortions and denials so the individual can insight into their true self
- client centered therapy is based on the therapist giving unconditional positive regard and showing genuine and empathy
- therapists regard themselves as guides or facilitators
- client is in charge of what they talk about and lead the conversation so they become aware of their own thoughts
- increase congruence between ideal self and self concept
evaluation of humanistic approach strengths
- practical application by helping create therapies where person centred therapy has been proven effective
- relevance in economic world where there is a relationship between maslows levels with economic growth, as self actualisation helps to explain success and motivation in the workplace
- holistic approach and takes in all parts of someone’s life and how it influences it
- empowers individuals by emphasising free will and the ability to change
evaluation of humanistic approach weaknesses
- unscientific as it uses universally methods so cannot be replicated
- different cultures prioritise different needs, where a study in china highlights belonging is more important than physiological needs
- unrealistic view of human nature and that we aren’t inherently good and fails to recognise people’s capacity for pessimism
- ideographic and does not create generalised laws but rather is unique to each person
features of behaviourist approach to compare
- environmental determinism
- nurture
- scientific as it focuses on objectivity and being experimentally based
features of social learning approach to compare
- learning by observing and modelling is deterministic. however, some free will where individual chooses when to apply these tools
- nurture. however capacity to learn from observation can be innate
- mostly scientific
features of cognitive approach to compare
- soft determinism as individual has some degree of control over behaviour
- interactionist as we all share same information processing (nature) but some may have irrational thinking due to experience (nurture)
- cognitive neuroscience is scientific. however mental process are largely unobservable
features of psychodynamic approach to compare
- psychic determinism
- interactionist as tripartite personally can be nature, however we are shaped by our childhood experiences
- generally based on case studies (idiographic)
features of humanistic approach to compare
- free will
- interactionist as our human nature is to self actualise, however we are shaped due to our experiences and upbringing
- unscientific as idiographic
