Approaches + Biopsychology

Question 1

What are the types and functions of neurons?

Answer 1

Neurons are designed to provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication; this is done by transmitting signals electrically and chemically.
There are three types of neuron:
Motor neurons - connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites + long axons.
Sensory neurons - carry messages from the PNS to the CNS. They have long dendrites + short axons.
Relay neurons - connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.

Question 2

What is the structure of a neuron?

Answer 2

Cell body (or soma) - includes necleus which contains the genetic material of the cell.
Dendrites - branch-like structures that protrude from the cell body. These carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body.
Axon - Carries electrical impulse away from the cell body down the length of the neuron.
Myelin sheath - fatty layer that protects the axon
Nodes of Ranvier - Gaps along the axon (but in the myelin sheath) that speed up the transmission of the impulse.
Terminal buttons - at the end of the axon that communicate with the next neuron in the chain across a gap called the synapse.

Question 3

Explain the processes involved with the firing of a neuron.

Answer 3

When a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside.
When it is activated the inside of the cell becomes positively charged for a split second - causing potential action to occur.
This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron.

Question 4

What is the concept of free will? (Humanistic Approach)

Answer 4

Humanistic psychologists reject attempts to establish scientific principles of human behaviour.
It believes that we are all unique and that psychology should concern itself with studying the subjective experience. This makes it idiographic.

Question 5

Explain Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Humanistic Approach).

Answer 5

Maslow’s hierarchy has four levels of deficiency that must be met, then the individual can work towards self-actualisation.
Self-actualisation is our innate tendency for us to want to reach our full potential and be the best that we can be.

Question 6

What is the focus on the self? (Humanistic Approach)

Answer 6

This refers to ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘Me’ such as the perception of ‘What I am’ and ‘What I can do’.

Question 7

What is the concept of congruence between the self-concept and the ideal self? (Humanistic Approach)

Answer 7

Carl rogers argued that personal growth requires an individuals concept of self to be congruent with their ideal self (the person they want to be).
If there’s too big a gap the person will experience incongruence and self-actualisation isn’t possible.

Question 8

Why might parents who impose conditions of worth prevent personal growth? (Humanistic Approach)

Answer 8

Issues such as worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood and are due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.
A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child (conditions of love) e.g ‘I will only love you if….’ is setting up psychological problems for the child in the future

Question 9

Explain Rodgers humanistic based counselling (Humanistic Approach)

Answer 9

In Rogers client centred therapy an effective therapist should provide the client with:
Genuineness
Empathy
Unconditional positive regard
The aim is to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongurence between the ideal self and the actual self.
This has changed psychotherapy and is practised in clinical settings, education, health and social work

Question 10

What is the role of science and inference in the cognitive approach?

Answer 10

The cognitive approach is at odds with the behaviourist approach as it argues that mental processes (perception, memory etc). can and should be studied.
However mental processes cannot be observed so psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on based on peoples behaviour.

Question 11

How are models (and computer models)used when describing and explaining mental processes? (Cognitive Approch)

Answer 11

The information processing approach suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval; such as in the mutli-store memory model.
The ‘computer analogy’ suggests there are similarities in how computer and human minds process information. For example a central processor (our brain), information is changed into a code and stores are used to hold information.

Question 12

What is a schema? (Cognitive approach)

Answer 12

• Schema’s are packages of information developed through experience.
• They act as a framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.
• Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping.
• As we get older our schema become more detailed sophisticated

Question 13

How has cognitive neuroscience effected the cognitive approach?

Answer 13

Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes?
With advances in brain scanning in the last 20 years scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing.
This includes research into memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex in the brain.
Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders, such as the parahippocampal gyrus + OCD

Question 14

What are two strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 14

Uses scientific and objective methods. Cognitive psychologists have always employed rigorous methods (such as lab studies to infer cognitive processes at work). This means biology and cognitive psychology have come together-to form cognitive neuroscience. This improves the internal validity as it gives the study of the mind a credible, scientific basis.
It also can be applied to everyday life It is dominant in psychology and can be applied to many practical and theoretical contexts. For example it has been applied to the field of AI and the development of robots. This increases the external validity of the approach as it can be seen in practical contexts.

Question 15

What are two weaknesses of the cognitive approach?

Answer 15

Oversimplification. There are similarities between computers and human brains (e.g inputs, outputs, central processors, storage systems) the computer analogy has however been criticised. For instance human motivation and emotions have been shown to influence accuracy of recall (e.g in eyewittness accounts). However these factors are not considered within the computer analogy. This reduces the internal validity of the approach as it oversimplifies cognitive processing and ignores important aspects that influence performance.
It lacks external validity. Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from behaviour they observe, so the approach suffers from being to abstract + theoretical. Research is also carried out using artificial stimuli, such as recall of word lists in memory studies, these do not represent everyday life. This weakens the study as cognitive processes may lack external validity.

Question 16

What is Freud’s psychodynamic approach?

Answer 16

It studies the role of the unconscious , the structure of personality (Id, Ego + Superego), defence mechanisms (such as repression, denial and displacement) and it looks at the psychosexual stages.

Question 17

What are the 3 sections of the mind according to Freud?

Answer 17

Conscious - what we are aware of
Pre-conscious - thoughts we become aware of through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’
Unconscious - a vast storage area of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour.

Question 18

What did Freud say were the 3 parts of the personality?

Answer 18

Id - primitive part of the personality, operates on pleasure and demands instant gratification.
Superego - Internalised sense of right and wrong based on morality principle. Punishes ego through guilt.
Ego - Works on the reality principle and mediates between Id and Superego

Question 19

What are the psychosexual stages?

Answer 19

Oral (0-1 years) pleasure focus =mouth, mothers breast is the object of pleasure
Anal (1-3) pleasure focus =Anus, Child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces.
Phallic (3-5 years) pleasure focus =genital area.
Latency - Earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital (puberty) - sexual desires become conscious

Question 20

How do the psychosexual stages determine personality?

Answer 20

Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move on to the next.
Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation and carries behaviours associated with that stage into adult life.

Question 21

What is the Oedipus complex?

Answer 21

During the phallic stage boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father. Later this is repressed and they identify with the father - taking on his gender role and moral values. Girls of the same age experience penis envy.

Question 22

How does the ego keep the Id in check?

Answer 22

Most of these strategies are unconscious;
Repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind.
Denial - Refusing to acknowledge reality
Displacement - transferring feelings from the true source onto a substitute target.

Question 23

What are two strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 23

It had explanatory power. Although controversial it has had influence on western thought. It has been used to explain a wide range of behaviours (moral, mental disorders) and drew attention to influence of childhood on adult personality. This was a dominant approach in the first half of the 20th century (suggesting that at the time it had its strengths).
It has practical applications. Freud introduced a new form of therapy; psychoanalysis. it is designed to access the mind using hypnosis and dream analysis. It can be suitable for individuals suffering from neuroses, but not for those with severe mental disorders - such as schizophrenia. However it is the forerunner to many psychotherapies and talking cures that have been established - which gives it some external validity.

Question 24

What are two weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 24

Case studies have been critised.Freud’s ideas were developed using case studies It has been suggested that generalised claims about human nature cannot be made based on such a small sample. Whilst he did detail and record his observations, his interpretations were highly subjective and so other researchers may not have drawn the same conclusions. This means that the theory lacks reliability and scientific rigour.
It cannot be disproved. Karl Popper has argued that the approach cannot be falsified (i.e disproved). Many of Freud’s concepts cannot be tested as they occur at the unconscious level. This means that the psychodynamic approach is pseudoscience instead of real science

Question 25

How does the biological approach believe human behaviour comes from?

Answer 25

The biological approach believes it stems from structures and processes within the body, such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system.

Question 26

What does the biological approach believe is the bias for behaviour?

Answer 26

It believes that behaviour has a genetic basis, for example the 5HT1-D beta gene is implicated in OCD.
It also believes that neurochemistry can explain behaviour, for example low levels of serotonin + OCD.

Question 27

How are the mind and body seen in the biological approach?

Answer 27

For the biological approach the mind lives in the brain; so all thoughts, feelings and behaviours have a physical basis. This contrasts from the cognitive approach which sees the mind as separate.

Question 28

How are twin studies used in the biological approach?

Answer 28

They are used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour. Concordance rates between the twins are calculated - the extent to which twins share the same characteristic.
Higher concordance rates among identical twins (MZ) than non-identical twins (DZ) is evidence of a genetic basis. For example, 68% of MZ twins both have OCD compared with 31% of DZ twins.

Question 29

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Answer 29

Genotype is the genetic makeup of somebody.
Phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
Phenotype is influenced by environmental factors.
For example, phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet.
This suggests that much of human nature depends on the interaction of nature and nurture.

Question 30

How is the theory of evolution used by the biological approach?

Answer 30

Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed onto future generations. Such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages. For example attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and therefore are naturally selected.

Question 31

What are two strengths of the biological approach?

Answer 31

It uses scientific methods of investigation. It makes use of a range of precise and scientific methods, in order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour. This includes scanning techniques and drug trails, meaning it is possible to study biological and neural processes without bias. This increases the internal validity of the approach as it is based on reliable data.
It has real-life applications. Increased understanding of processes in the brain has led to development of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders such as depression. Whilst they are not effective for all patients they have revolutionised treatment for many. This is a strength for the approach as it increases its external validity.

Question 32

What are two weaknesses of the biological approach?

Answer 32

Difficulty of separating nature and nurture. The biological approach believes that all members of the same family (i.e twins (MZ + DZ, siblings, offspring, etc) all behave the same way because of genetic similarities. However the fact that they are exposed to the same environmental conditions are an important confounding variable. This reduces the internal validity as we do not know whether the results support nature or nurture.
It is based on a determinist view of behaviour. The approach sees behaviour as governed by internal biological causes which have no control over. This is however at odds with the legal system which sees offenders as responsible for their actions. The discovery of a criminal gene complicates this principle.. Such research may possibly have negative impacts on society as criminals would be able to excuse their behaviour.

Question 33

What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 33

The behaviourist approach focuses on behaviours that can be observed and measured. It does not bother with processes of the mind and early behaviourist rejected introspection as it was too vague and difficult to measure.
Behaviourists maintain control and objectivity by using lab studies for research.
Behaviourists suggest that the processes for learning are the same in all species-and so use animals in place of humans in studies.

Question 34

What was Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning? (Behavioural approach)

Answer 34

Pavlov taught dogs to salivate when a bell rings.
Before conditioning:
The UCS creates an UCR
NS = No response
During conditioning:
NS is paired with UCS. So bell and food occur at the same time.
After conditioning:
CS creates a CR.
Thus Pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus can create a new learned response through association.

Question 35

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 35

Learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by it consequences.

Question 36

What is Skinner’s research into operant conditioning?

Answer 36

Skinner’s research used rats and pigeons in specially designed cages. When a rat activated a lever (or pigeon pecked a disc) it was rewarded with a food pellet. This desirable consequence led to the behaviour being repeated. If pressing a lever meant the animal avoided a shock, the behaviour would also be repeated.

Question 37

What are the three consequences of behaviour according to the behavioural approach?

Answer 37

Positive reinforcement - Receiving a reward when a behaviour is performed.
Negative reinforcement - When an animal or human produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant.
Punishment - unpleasant consequence of behaviour.
Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, but punishment decreases.

Question 38

What are two strengths of the behavioural approach?

Answer 38

It gives psychology scientific credibility. The approach focuses on careful measurement of behaviour within lab settings, they also emphasise the importance of processes such as objectivity and replication.
Real life application. It has been applied to a broad range of real-life behaviours and problems. Token economies have been used to reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. This has been successfully used in prisons and psychiatric wards. This increases the external validity of the theory.

Question 39

What are two limitations of the behavioural approach?

Answer 39

It portrays a mechanistic view. We are seen as passive machine-like responders to the environment with no insight into behaviour. Other approaches, such as SLT or the cognitive approach place more emphasis on mental processes. The processes that mediate between stimulus and response suggest that humans play a more active role in learning - so this weakens the validity of it.
Behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism.It sees all behaviour as determinied as ignores the influence of free will on behaviour. Skinner argued that we make a decision it is made on the basis of past conditioning, but we pretend that it from free-will.

Question 40

What are the key assumptions of social learning theory?

Answer 40

Bandura believed that learning occurs through experience and from social context, such as observation and imitation of others.
In vicarious reinforcement people learn from observing the consequences of behaviours, and coping behaviours that are seen to be rewarded. Bandura also believed that children are more likely to imitate the behaviours of those that they identify with. These models tend to be similar to the observer, attractive and have high status.

Question 41

What are the four processes in Social Learning Theory?

Answer 41

ARMM
Attention - if a behaviour is noticed
Retention - whether a behaviour is remembered
Motor Retention - being able to do it.
Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour
AR relate to learning the behaviour; MM relate to the performing of the behaviour. So learning and performance do not have to occur together (different to behaviourism).

Question 42

What was Bandura’s research?

Answer 42

In the first trial children watched either an adult behaving aggressive towards a Bobo doll. An Adult behaving non-agressively towards a Bobo Doll. When given their own doll children who had seen agression were much more aggressive.
In the second trail children saw an adult who was rewarded, punished or there was no consequence. Those who had seen aggression rewarded were more aggressive themselves.
The studies suggest that children will act agressivley if they see this in an adult rolemodel. They will model this if it is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement).

Question 43

What are two strengths of SLT?

Answer 43

Emphases importance of cognitive factors. Classical and operant conditioning cannot offer a comprehensive account as they omit cognitive factors. Humans and animals store information about behaviour and use this to make judgements about when to perform actions. SLT provides a more complete account which increases it external validity.
It can account for cultural differences. It can account for how children learn from those around them, as well as the media, and so can explain how cultural norms are transmitted. This is useful in understanding behaviours such as how children come to understand their gender role (imitating role models). This increases its external validity in comparison to theories that cannot explain culture (i.e biological approach).

Question 44

What are two limitations of SLT?

Answer 44

Relies to heavily on Bandura’s theories. Many of his ideas were developed through observation of children in labs - so demand characteristics. The point of a Bobo doll is to hit it, so children may have been behaving as they thought was expected. So this reduces the internal validity of Bandura’s theory
Findings in Bobo doll experiment showed more aggression in boys compared to girls, regardless of experimental condition. This may be explained by testosterone (which is more present in boys). So Bandura may have underplayed the biological factors in learning.