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A level psychology AQA > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

What do Behaviourists believe about research?

A

They believe it should be scientific therefore focus on observable bhvr which can be measured and objective.

They only mainly use lab experiments which mostly used non-human like animals e.g Pavlov’s dogs

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2
Q

Why do Bhvrists use animals in their studies instead of humans?

A

They believe that human learning is the same as animal learning. So, they can replace humans in experiments.

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3
Q

What do Behaviourists believe about human bhvr?

A

Bhvrists believe that normal and abnormal bhvr is learned.

This is learned through classical and operant conditioning

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4
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

This is when bhvr is learned through associating different stimuli together.

This learning is involuntary for example, flinching after being abused because you associate pain.

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5
Q

What were Pavlov’s dogs like before CC?

A

Food –> Salivation
(Uncontrolled stimuli) (Unconditioned response)

    Bell                 -->                   No salivation (Neutral stimuli)                (No conditioned response)
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6
Q

What were Pavlov’s dogs during CC?

A

Bell and Food –> Salivation

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7
Q

What were Pavlov’s dogs after CC?

A

Bell –> Salivation

Conditioned stimuli) (Conditioned response

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8
Q

Define operant conditioning

A

This is when a person operates on their environment.

Bhvr is shaped by its consequences and is voluntary bc a person chooses to behave.

It is shaped through positive and negative reinforcement + punishment.

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9
Q

Define positive reinforcement in OC

A

This is when a reward is given to a specific bhvr.

This then increases the likelihood of this bhvr being shown by the human.

E.g a sticker for being good.

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10
Q

Define negative reinforcement in OC

A

This is when an animal/ person avoids something unpleasant, so the consequences are positive.

This increases the likelihood of this bhvr being shown.

E.g a student hands their essay on time to not get a detention

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11
Q

Define punishment in OC

A

This is an unpleasant consequence of a specific bhvr.

This will decreases the likelihood of that bhvr being shown

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12
Q

What is operant conditioning’s key research?

A

The Skinner box (1953):

  1. Rats press a lever to receive food = pos. reinforcement
  2. Rats press a level to get a electric shock = punishment
  3. Rats learned to avoid the electric shock level = neg. reinforcement.

This supports operant conditioning

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13
Q

What are the two key studies in bhvrism?

A

Pavlov’s Dogs (1927) and Skinners Box (1953)

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14
Q

How is the methodology of bhvrism a strength?

A

An assumption of bhvrsm = research is scientific
Used lab studies to reduce extraneous variables and establish cause and effect.

Allowed it to be replicable and adds to the scientific credibility of bhvrism experiments.

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15
Q

How is stimulus-response reductionism in bhvrism a weakness?

A

Less internal validity

Bhvrists may have oversimplified the learning process and ignored the meditational processes which is suggested in SLT and cognitive approach.

These processes mediate between stimuli and response = people are more active in their own learning

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16
Q

How is application a strength of the bhvrist approach?

A

Principles of conditioning has been applied to the real world

E.g token economy systems in jail and schools.

Widespread application

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17
Q

How is the methodology of bhvrism a weakness?

A

Low ethics - Skinners Box

During this time = no ethical guidelines.

Animals kept in cramped conditions at 2/3rds of their natural weight = so they were always hungry

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18
Q

What are main assumptions of SLT?

A

All bhvr is learned - like bhvrists - H/E = they believe its a social learning process –> we learn from other people

They believe we learn bhvr through observation and imitation of role models.

Learning can happen directly through conditioning or indirectly through vicarious reinforcement.

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19
Q

Define vicarious reinforcement

A

Indirectly experiencing reinforcement through observing the consequences of the actions of others.

This is a key factor for imitation

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20
Q

Name all of four meditational process

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Motor reproduction
  4. Motivation
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21
Q

What does Attention mean in the meditational processes?

A

How well we notice the bhvr

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22
Q

What does Retention mean in the meditational processes?

A

How well we remember the bhvr

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23
Q

What does Motor Reproduction mean in the meditational processes?

A

The ability of the observer to perform the bhvr

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24
Q

What does Motivation mean in the meditational processes?

A

The will to perform the bhvr - often determined by the consequence of the bhvr

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25
Q

What are meditational processes and how does this affect bhvr?

A

These are cognitive factors that mediate (i.e intervene) between the stimulus and response in learning.

This was identified by Bandura

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26
Q

What does the first 2 meditational processes assist with?

A

Learning a bhvr

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27
Q

What does the last 2 meditational processes assist with?

A

Producing a bhvr

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28
Q

Define identification

A

This is when people (especially children) wish to become more like the people they identify after observing them.

This is because, these role models are seen to be attractive/desirable.

As a result of , the person will have similar characteristics

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29
Q

Define modelling

A

This is imitating the bhvr of the role model (observers perspective) and the process of demonstrating a bhvr (from the role model)

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30
Q

Name SLT’s key study

A

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)

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31
Q

What happened in the Bobo Doll experiment (1961)?

A

Aim = To see if social bhvrs (i.e aggression) can be learned through modelling and imitation

Participants = 72 boys + girls (3-6yrs) = 24 in each 
Group 1 (aggressive) + Group 2 (non-aggressive) + Group 3 (control)

Method = Observation. Adults acts as role models being physically + verbally aggressive to the Bobo doll. Child was left in the room + bhvr was observed

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32
Q

What were the findings of the Bobo Doll experiment (1961)?

A

Children who observed an aggressive adult, behaved more aggressively towards the Bobo doll, in comparison to the control group.

This supports indirect learning and imitation

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33
Q

What happened in the 1963 Bobo Doll experiment?

A

Method = Aggressive bhvr of role model was praised + control group saw aggressive bhvr being punished

Findings = Children who saw praise were more likely to be aggressive to the Bobo doll than CG

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34
Q

Define imitation

A

Copying the bhvr of others

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35
Q

How is recognising the importance of cognitive factors, a strength of SLT?

A

SLT = more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of the meditational process

Bhvrism = can’t give an adequate explanation how humans can learn by themselves

Humans + animals = store the info abt the bhvr of others + use this to make judgements when they are in the same position

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36
Q

How is an over-reliance on on evidence from lab studies a weakness of SLT?

A

LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY

Bandura’s ideas = developed through the observation of the children in lab settings

Lab settings = artificial and open to demand characteristics

Bhvr of children may not how they learn aggression in everyday life.

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37
Q

How does SLT have a strong application?

A

Can be used to explain cultural differences in bhvr

SLT principles e.g identification/ modelling

Explains how societal/cultural norms are transmitted in particular societies, as children learn from others around them

This is useful in understanding diff. bhvr e.g how children understand their gender role.

This increases the value of the approach.

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38
Q

How is ethics a weakness of SLT?

A

Bobo Doll experiment

By praising children for aggressive bhvr, they will continue to be aggressive after the experiment.

Ethically = supposed to keep the participants the same as they were before the experiment

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39
Q

What are the main assumptions of the cognitive approach?

A

Internal mental processes (IMP) can and should be studied scientifically - different to bhvrism

IMP = private processes of the mind e.g attention/memory + these processes mediate between stimuli + our response

Uses inferences to create theories about the mind and bhvr

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40
Q

Define a schema

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that help understand information and influence cognitive processing

This is developed by experience. H/E = babies have an innate schema of sucking and grasping

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41
Q

How are schemas not useful

A

Can distort interpretations of sensory info, leading to perceptual errors

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42
Q

How are schemas useful?

A

Helps make shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of info

Helps fill in gaps when we don’t know the details e.g new situation

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43
Q

What models do cognitive researchers use, to try and explain how info is processes?

A

Theoretical models and computer models

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44
Q

Define and give an example of a theoretical model

A

TM is abstract

Information processing approach = info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages.g storage and input –> similar to flow chart

^ models are adapted when new research evidence is made

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45
Q

Define and give examples of a computer model

A

This compares the mind of the computer and suggest there’s similarities in how info is processed.

Concept of coding = the way info is put in the memory stores

Input = new info coming

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46
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

This is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on cognitive thought processes.

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47
Q

What brain scanning techniques are used in cognitive neuroscience?

A

fMRIs = Functional magnetic resonance imaging

PET scans = Positron emission tomography

EEG = electroencephalogram

48
Q

Why is brain scanning techniques linked to the cognitive approach?

A

Scientists have be able to systematically map out the brain, observe + describe the neurological basis of mental processes

Tulving et al (1972) = diff. types of LTM stored on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex

49
Q

How is modern cognitive psychology a strength?

A

RELIABILITY

Approach uses objective, highly controlled + scientific methods to infer cognitive processes.

Use lab studies to produce consistent and objective data

Emergence of cognitive neuroscience = enables biology ad psychology to enhance its scientific credibility.

50
Q

How is machine reductionism a weakness of the cognitive approach?

A

LOW INTERNAL VALIDITY

Although there are similarities between the human mind + computers e.g input + storage systems

Computer analogy is criticised bc = ignores the influence of human emotion + motivation –> on how it affects our ability to process info

^ Johnson and Scott (1976) = accuracy of identifying the man with knife was 33% in comparison to 49% who had a pen

51
Q

How does modern cognitive theory have strong and wide application as a strength?

A

Cognitive psychology have made large contributions in the AI and the development of thinking robots - revolutionise the future

The cognitive approach has been applied to the treatment of depression - Beck’s negative schemas

Supports the VALUE of the approach

52
Q

How is the methodology of cognitive research a weakness?

A

LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY

Relies on the inferences of mental processes than rather observational bhvr

Research studies = artificial stimuli e.g tests of memory using word lists

Research on the cognitive processes may not be accurate to the bhvr in the real world

53
Q

State the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

A

It focuses on the dynamics of human behaviour where it argues, its mostly unconscious

Suggests childhood experiences plays a role in bhvr (particularly abnormal) which is explained in Freud’s Psychosexual stages

Within conscious and unconscious states of mind, we have a tri-part personality that works together to control bhvr

54
Q

Define the unconscious

A

This is the part of the mind that we are unaware of but directs much of our bhvr.

This part of our mind is inaccessible + unpleasant experiences are stored here

55
Q

When can we see our preconscious?

A

They can emerge as slips of the tongue

56
Q

Define the conscious mind

A

Everything that we think about and are explicitly aware of

57
Q

Which part of the mind does the superego and id mostly belong to?

A

Unconscious

58
Q

Which part of the mind does the ego belong to?

A

Preconscious

59
Q

State the structure of personality

A

Id
Ego
Superego

60
Q

Define the Id

A

Developed at birth

Pleasure principle

Instinct/ primitive = devil

61
Q

Define the Ego

A

Developed at 3 years old

Reality principle

Mediator between superego and id

62
Q

Define superego

A

Developed at 5 years old (end of the phallic stage)

Morality principle = angel

Strong moral judgment + wants to do right all the time

63
Q

State all of Freud’s defence mechanisms

A

Repression
Denial
Displacement

64
Q

Define repression

A

This is forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

65
Q

Define denial

A

The refusal to accept reality, in order to avoid dealing with difficult feelings associated with the situation

66
Q

Define displacement

A

Redirecting the thoughts and feelings from its source, onto a substitute target

67
Q

State all 5 of the psychosexual stages

A 
Oral 
Anal 
Phallic 
Latency 
Genital
68
Q

How to remember the 5 psychosexual stages?

A 
Orange 
Apples 
Poop 
Large 
Grapes
69
Q

When does the oral stage develop

A

0-1 yrs

Id is born with child

70
Q

Describe the oral stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict

A

Focus on pleasure of the mouth - mother’s breast is their desire

Oral fixation - smoking or biting nails

71
Q

When does the Anal stage develop?

A

1-3yrs old

Ego is developed around 2 years old

72
Q

Describe the anal stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict

A

Focus on pleasure of the anus - pleasure from expelling/ withholding poop

Anal retentive - perfectionist vs anal expulsive - messy

73
Q

When does the phallic stage develop?

A

3-6yrs old

Superego develop at 5

74
Q

Describe the phallic stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict

A

Focus on pleasure of the genital area

Phallic personality - narcissistic/ reckless

Oedipus and Electra complex is experienced during this stage

75
Q

When does latency develop?

A

6-12 yrs old

76
Q

Describe the latency stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict

A

During latency, earlier conflicts are repressed and there is no conflict to be resolved. Therefore, there is no fixation at this stage.

77
Q

When age does the genital stage develop?

A

12+ yrs

78
Q

Describe the genital stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict

A

Puberty occurs + sexual desire = conscious

Fixation + unresolved conflict = problems forming heterosexual relationships

79
Q

Define the Oedipus complex

A

This is experienced by boys during the phallic stage (3-5yrs)

Son wants to unconsciously sleep with mother + sees dad as key rival

Castration anxiety = repress feelings for mum and identifies with dad + takes on his gender role and moral values

80
Q

Define the Electra complex

A

Experienced by girls in the phallic stage (3-5yrs)

Daughter has penis envy and unconsciously wants to sleep with her dad + hates mum

Desire for dad is replaced with desire for having a baby

81
Q

How is good application a strength of the Psychodynamic approach?

A

Freud led to the upcoming of psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental illnesses psychologically rather than physically. For example, dream analysis.

Psychoanalysis = foundations for ‘talking therapies’ e.g counselling.

Shows the VALUE of the Psychodynamic approach bc it created a new approach to treatment

82
Q

How is the Psychodynamic approach being unfalsifiable a weakness?

A

Bc Freud’s concepts are unconscious to the human mind, we are unable to test their existence.

Even with Freud’s Little Hans case study that supports the Oedipus complex, the methods used to come to this conclusion isn’t scientific.

Lack of objectivity as the analysis was conducted second hand by Hans’ father

83
Q

How can the psychoanlaysis be seen as unethical when used for people with more serious disorders?

A

E.g schizophrenia

Inappropriate to use bc therapists’ interpretation can’t be tested + therapy is £ + time consuming whilst not guaranteeing a cure.

Issues with recall of ‘repressed’ memories of abuse = distressing to the indvl and their families.

84
Q

What are the main assumptions of the humanism approach?

A

Believe we have free will and are self determining

They reject scientific study and argues that all subjective experiences should be studied - holistic

The approach is ‘people centred’ and believes people are unique

85
Q

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

A

Mallows theory focus on what right in humans rather than what’s wrong

Each person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential (self-actualisation).

This is reached by achieving different levels of needs

86
Q

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A 
Self actualisation (top) 
Esteem 
Love/ Belonging 
Safety 
Physiological
87
Q

What are deficiency needs?

A

These are needs/ levels that must be ,et before a person can work towards self actualisation

88
Q

What happens in self-actualisation?

A

Reaching full potential

89
Q

What happens in fulfilling the esteem level?

A

Sense of achievement, respect

90
Q

What happens in the love/ belonging level?

A

Family, friends

91
Q

What happens in the physiological needs?

A

Food, water, sex

92
Q

Does everyone work up the hierarchy in the same way?

A

No - different needs may be less or more important for someone

93
Q

What did Carl Rogers argue in 1951?

A

The importance of self concept, congruence and the feelings of self worth

94
Q

What did Rogers emphasise that was important in psychological health?

A

A person’s self-concept

95
Q

Why is a person’s self concept important according to Rogers?

A

The more aligned and realistic our self concept is with our ideal self, the better our psychological health and well-being will be

96
Q

What two important needs does Rogers suggest help develop positive self-concepts?

A

Unconditional positive regard from others

Feeling of self worth

97
Q

What does condition of self worth mean?

A

When parents put conditions on their love

98
Q

How does the Humanism approach have good application?

A

Rogers created ‘client centred’ therapy = change from patients

Led to the general approach of counselling which is used in helplines e.g Samaritans

Roger = transformed psychotherapy + introduced variety of counselling techniques

99
Q

How is cultural bias (ethnocentric) a problem with the humanism approach?

A

Humanism centres around freedom and personal growth which is linked to individualistic cultures e.g USA

In collectivist cultures, self actualisation might not be important and cannot be GENERALISED

100
Q

How is the humanist approach being holistic a strength?

A

INCREASE VALIDITY TO OTHER APPROACHES

Other approaches e.g bhvrism/biological/psychodynamic try to reduce human bhvr to small components.

Humanism = considers meaningful subjective experiences within its real-world context

101
Q

Why is the humanism approach rejecting science and scientific research a weakness?

A

Discards the role of human biology

Rogers = childhood + relationship with parents help with self- concept and good psychological help

Evidence from biology = low serotonin levels leads to depression

102
Q

Describe the assumptions of the biological approach

A

Biological psychologists believe bhvr is innate and varies due to variations in our genetics.

Mental illnesses can be explained by physical aspects within the body like physical illnesses

They believe evolution, genetics, neural and hormonal mechanisms explain bhvr the best

103
Q

How many indvl chromosomes does a person have?

A

46 chromosomes and 23 pairs

104
Q

What is a dizygotic twin and how many % of genes do they share?

A

Fraternal twins

They share 50% of genes

105
Q

What are monozygotic twins and how many genes do they share?

A

Identical twins

100%

106
Q

What is a concordance rate and how does this link to twins?

A

This is the level of similarity/agreement between two people

MZ = expected to have 100% concordance rate bc genes

107
Q

What does Gottesman (1991) show in his twin study of Sz?

A

The general pop. had a risk of 1%

MZ twins = 49% not 100%.

This shows genetics don’t fully contribute to mental illnesses.

108
Q

What is Phenylketonuria (PKU) and how does it relate to the biological approach?

A

More biological psychologists are accepting the role of the environment.

PKU = genetic and can cause learning difficulties. Diet = low-protein

PKU is the genotype and the diet’s influence + PKU = phenotype

109
Q

Define genotype

A

Genetic make up

110
Q

Define phenotype

A

Physical attributes given and expressed by the gene

111
Q

How does our neurochemistry affect our bhvr.

A

Neurotransmitters allow communication between cells though chemical impulses across the synapse.

Imbalance = mental illness e.g low serotonin may cause depression

112
Q

How is bhvr and evolution linked?

A

Natural selection = genetic characteristics that allow survival is passed on for future generations

113
Q

How does the biological approach have good application?

A

Drug treatments and can help manage serious disorders = benefit for the economy

114
Q

How is twin studies (Gottesman 1991) a weakness of the biological approach?

A

The concordance rate is never 100% = more research is needed to explain why not all MZ twins get the same symptoms

Interactions approach is better

115
Q

How is the biological approach methodology in scientific research a strength?

A

Scientific methods and scanning allows objectivity and consistency in results. This make their results reliable and replicable

A level psychology AQA (9 decks)

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