Approaches Flashcards
What do Behaviourists believe about research?
They believe it should be scientific therefore focus on observable bhvr which can be measured and objective.
They only mainly use lab experiments which mostly used non-human like animals e.g Pavlov’s dogs
Why do Bhvrists use animals in their studies instead of humans?
They believe that human learning is the same as animal learning. So, they can replace humans in experiments.
What do Behaviourists believe about human bhvr?
Bhvrists believe that normal and abnormal bhvr is learned.
This is learned through classical and operant conditioning
Define classical conditioning
This is when bhvr is learned through associating different stimuli together.
This learning is involuntary for example, flinching after being abused because you associate pain.
What were Pavlov’s dogs like before CC?
Food –> Salivation
(Uncontrolled stimuli) (Unconditioned response)
Bell --> No salivation (Neutral stimuli) (No conditioned response)
What were Pavlov’s dogs during CC?
Bell and Food –> Salivation
What were Pavlov’s dogs after CC?
Bell –> Salivation
Conditioned stimuli) (Conditioned response
Define operant conditioning
This is when a person operates on their environment.
Bhvr is shaped by its consequences and is voluntary bc a person chooses to behave.
It is shaped through positive and negative reinforcement + punishment.
Define positive reinforcement in OC
This is when a reward is given to a specific bhvr.
This then increases the likelihood of this bhvr being shown by the human.
E.g a sticker for being good.
Define negative reinforcement in OC
This is when an animal/ person avoids something unpleasant, so the consequences are positive.
This increases the likelihood of this bhvr being shown.
E.g a student hands their essay on time to not get a detention
Define punishment in OC
This is an unpleasant consequence of a specific bhvr.
This will decreases the likelihood of that bhvr being shown
What is operant conditioning’s key research?
The Skinner box (1953):
- Rats press a lever to receive food = pos. reinforcement
- Rats press a level to get a electric shock = punishment
- Rats learned to avoid the electric shock level = neg. reinforcement.
This supports operant conditioning
What are the two key studies in bhvrism?
Pavlov’s Dogs (1927) and Skinners Box (1953)
How is the methodology of bhvrism a strength?
An assumption of bhvrsm = research is scientific
Used lab studies to reduce extraneous variables and establish cause and effect.
Allowed it to be replicable and adds to the scientific credibility of bhvrism experiments.
How is stimulus-response reductionism in bhvrism a weakness?
Less internal validity
Bhvrists may have oversimplified the learning process and ignored the meditational processes which is suggested in SLT and cognitive approach.
These processes mediate between stimuli and response = people are more active in their own learning
How is application a strength of the bhvrist approach?
Principles of conditioning has been applied to the real world
E.g token economy systems in jail and schools.
Widespread application
How is the methodology of bhvrism a weakness?
Low ethics - Skinners Box
During this time = no ethical guidelines.
Animals kept in cramped conditions at 2/3rds of their natural weight = so they were always hungry
What are main assumptions of SLT?
All bhvr is learned - like bhvrists - H/E = they believe its a social learning process –> we learn from other people
They believe we learn bhvr through observation and imitation of role models.
Learning can happen directly through conditioning or indirectly through vicarious reinforcement.
Define vicarious reinforcement
Indirectly experiencing reinforcement through observing the consequences of the actions of others.
This is a key factor for imitation
Name all of four meditational process
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
What does Attention mean in the meditational processes?
How well we notice the bhvr
What does Retention mean in the meditational processes?
How well we remember the bhvr
What does Motor Reproduction mean in the meditational processes?
The ability of the observer to perform the bhvr
What does Motivation mean in the meditational processes?
The will to perform the bhvr - often determined by the consequence of the bhvr
What are meditational processes and how does this affect bhvr?
These are cognitive factors that mediate (i.e intervene) between the stimulus and response in learning.
This was identified by Bandura
What does the first 2 meditational processes assist with?
Learning a bhvr
What does the last 2 meditational processes assist with?
Producing a bhvr
Define identification
This is when people (especially children) wish to become more like the people they identify after observing them.
This is because, these role models are seen to be attractive/desirable.
As a result of , the person will have similar characteristics
Define modelling
This is imitating the bhvr of the role model (observers perspective) and the process of demonstrating a bhvr (from the role model)
Name SLT’s key study
Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
What happened in the Bobo Doll experiment (1961)?
Aim = To see if social bhvrs (i.e aggression) can be learned through modelling and imitation
Participants = 72 boys + girls (3-6yrs) = 24 in each Group 1 (aggressive) + Group 2 (non-aggressive) + Group 3 (control)
Method = Observation. Adults acts as role models being physically + verbally aggressive to the Bobo doll. Child was left in the room + bhvr was observed
What were the findings of the Bobo Doll experiment (1961)?
Children who observed an aggressive adult, behaved more aggressively towards the Bobo doll, in comparison to the control group.
This supports indirect learning and imitation
What happened in the 1963 Bobo Doll experiment?
Method = Aggressive bhvr of role model was praised + control group saw aggressive bhvr being punished
Findings = Children who saw praise were more likely to be aggressive to the Bobo doll than CG
Define imitation
Copying the bhvr of others
How is recognising the importance of cognitive factors, a strength of SLT?
SLT = more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of the meditational process
Bhvrism = can’t give an adequate explanation how humans can learn by themselves
Humans + animals = store the info abt the bhvr of others + use this to make judgements when they are in the same position
How is an over-reliance on on evidence from lab studies a weakness of SLT?
LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
Bandura’s ideas = developed through the observation of the children in lab settings
Lab settings = artificial and open to demand characteristics
Bhvr of children may not how they learn aggression in everyday life.
How does SLT have a strong application?
Can be used to explain cultural differences in bhvr
SLT principles e.g identification/ modelling
Explains how societal/cultural norms are transmitted in particular societies, as children learn from others around them
This is useful in understanding diff. bhvr e.g how children understand their gender role.
This increases the value of the approach.
How is ethics a weakness of SLT?
Bobo Doll experiment
By praising children for aggressive bhvr, they will continue to be aggressive after the experiment.
Ethically = supposed to keep the participants the same as they were before the experiment
What are the main assumptions of the cognitive approach?
Internal mental processes (IMP) can and should be studied scientifically - different to bhvrism
IMP = private processes of the mind e.g attention/memory + these processes mediate between stimuli + our response
Uses inferences to create theories about the mind and bhvr
Define a schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that help understand information and influence cognitive processing
This is developed by experience. H/E = babies have an innate schema of sucking and grasping
How are schemas not useful
Can distort interpretations of sensory info, leading to perceptual errors
How are schemas useful?
Helps make shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of info
Helps fill in gaps when we don’t know the details e.g new situation
What models do cognitive researchers use, to try and explain how info is processes?
Theoretical models and computer models
Define and give an example of a theoretical model
TM is abstract
Information processing approach = info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages.g storage and input –> similar to flow chart
^ models are adapted when new research evidence is made
Define and give examples of a computer model
This compares the mind of the computer and suggest there’s similarities in how info is processed.
Concept of coding = the way info is put in the memory stores
Input = new info coming
What is cognitive neuroscience?
This is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on cognitive thought processes.
What brain scanning techniques are used in cognitive neuroscience?
fMRIs = Functional magnetic resonance imaging
PET scans = Positron emission tomography
EEG = electroencephalogram
Why is brain scanning techniques linked to the cognitive approach?
Scientists have be able to systematically map out the brain, observe + describe the neurological basis of mental processes
Tulving et al (1972) = diff. types of LTM stored on opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex
How is modern cognitive psychology a strength?
RELIABILITY
Approach uses objective, highly controlled + scientific methods to infer cognitive processes.
Use lab studies to produce consistent and objective data
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience = enables biology ad psychology to enhance its scientific credibility.
How is machine reductionism a weakness of the cognitive approach?
LOW INTERNAL VALIDITY
Although there are similarities between the human mind + computers e.g input + storage systems
Computer analogy is criticised bc = ignores the influence of human emotion + motivation –> on how it affects our ability to process info
^ Johnson and Scott (1976) = accuracy of identifying the man with knife was 33% in comparison to 49% who had a pen
How does modern cognitive theory have strong and wide application as a strength?
Cognitive psychology have made large contributions in the AI and the development of thinking robots - revolutionise the future
The cognitive approach has been applied to the treatment of depression - Beck’s negative schemas
Supports the VALUE of the approach
How is the methodology of cognitive research a weakness?
LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
Relies on the inferences of mental processes than rather observational bhvr
Research studies = artificial stimuli e.g tests of memory using word lists
Research on the cognitive processes may not be accurate to the bhvr in the real world
State the main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
It focuses on the dynamics of human behaviour where it argues, its mostly unconscious
Suggests childhood experiences plays a role in bhvr (particularly abnormal) which is explained in Freud’s Psychosexual stages
Within conscious and unconscious states of mind, we have a tri-part personality that works together to control bhvr
Define the unconscious
This is the part of the mind that we are unaware of but directs much of our bhvr.
This part of our mind is inaccessible + unpleasant experiences are stored here
When can we see our preconscious?
They can emerge as slips of the tongue
Define the conscious mind
Everything that we think about and are explicitly aware of
Which part of the mind does the superego and id mostly belong to?
Unconscious
Which part of the mind does the ego belong to?
Preconscious
State the structure of personality
Id
Ego
Superego
Define the Id
Developed at birth
Pleasure principle
Instinct/ primitive = devil
Define the Ego
Developed at 3 years old
Reality principle
Mediator between superego and id
Define superego
Developed at 5 years old (end of the phallic stage)
Morality principle = angel
Strong moral judgment + wants to do right all the time
State all of Freud’s defence mechanisms
Repression
Denial
Displacement
Define repression
This is forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
Define denial
The refusal to accept reality, in order to avoid dealing with difficult feelings associated with the situation
Define displacement
Redirecting the thoughts and feelings from its source, onto a substitute target
State all 5 of the psychosexual stages
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
How to remember the 5 psychosexual stages?
Orange Apples Poop Large Grapes
When does the oral stage develop
0-1 yrs
Id is born with child
Describe the oral stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict
Focus on pleasure of the mouth - mother’s breast is their desire
Oral fixation - smoking or biting nails
When does the Anal stage develop?
1-3yrs old
Ego is developed around 2 years old
Describe the anal stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict
Focus on pleasure of the anus - pleasure from expelling/ withholding poop
Anal retentive - perfectionist vs anal expulsive - messy
When does the phallic stage develop?
3-6yrs old
Superego develop at 5
Describe the phallic stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict
Focus on pleasure of the genital area
Phallic personality - narcissistic/ reckless
Oedipus and Electra complex is experienced during this stage
When does latency develop?
6-12 yrs old
Describe the latency stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict
During latency, earlier conflicts are repressed and there is no conflict to be resolved. Therefore, there is no fixation at this stage.
When age does the genital stage develop?
12+ yrs
Describe the genital stage and the consequences of unresolved conflict
Puberty occurs + sexual desire = conscious
Fixation + unresolved conflict = problems forming heterosexual relationships
Define the Oedipus complex
This is experienced by boys during the phallic stage (3-5yrs)
Son wants to unconsciously sleep with mother + sees dad as key rival
Castration anxiety = repress feelings for mum and identifies with dad + takes on his gender role and moral values
Define the Electra complex
Experienced by girls in the phallic stage (3-5yrs)
Daughter has penis envy and unconsciously wants to sleep with her dad + hates mum
Desire for dad is replaced with desire for having a baby
How is good application a strength of the Psychodynamic approach?
Freud led to the upcoming of psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental illnesses psychologically rather than physically. For example, dream analysis.
Psychoanalysis = foundations for ‘talking therapies’ e.g counselling.
Shows the VALUE of the Psychodynamic approach bc it created a new approach to treatment
How is the Psychodynamic approach being unfalsifiable a weakness?
Bc Freud’s concepts are unconscious to the human mind, we are unable to test their existence.
Even with Freud’s Little Hans case study that supports the Oedipus complex, the methods used to come to this conclusion isn’t scientific.
Lack of objectivity as the analysis was conducted second hand by Hans’ father
How can the psychoanlaysis be seen as unethical when used for people with more serious disorders?
E.g schizophrenia
Inappropriate to use bc therapists’ interpretation can’t be tested + therapy is £ + time consuming whilst not guaranteeing a cure.
Issues with recall of ‘repressed’ memories of abuse = distressing to the indvl and their families.
What are the main assumptions of the humanism approach?
Believe we have free will and are self determining
They reject scientific study and argues that all subjective experiences should be studied - holistic
The approach is ‘people centred’ and believes people are unique
Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Mallows theory focus on what right in humans rather than what’s wrong
Each person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential (self-actualisation).
This is reached by achieving different levels of needs
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Self actualisation (top) Esteem Love/ Belonging Safety Physiological
What are deficiency needs?
These are needs/ levels that must be ,et before a person can work towards self actualisation
What happens in self-actualisation?
Reaching full potential
What happens in fulfilling the esteem level?
Sense of achievement, respect
What happens in the love/ belonging level?
Family, friends
What happens in the physiological needs?
Food, water, sex
Does everyone work up the hierarchy in the same way?
No - different needs may be less or more important for someone
What did Carl Rogers argue in 1951?
The importance of self concept, congruence and the feelings of self worth
What did Rogers emphasise that was important in psychological health?
A person’s self-concept
Why is a person’s self concept important according to Rogers?
The more aligned and realistic our self concept is with our ideal self, the better our psychological health and well-being will be
What two important needs does Rogers suggest help develop positive self-concepts?
Unconditional positive regard from others
Feeling of self worth
What does condition of self worth mean?
When parents put conditions on their love
How does the Humanism approach have good application?
Rogers created ‘client centred’ therapy = change from patients
Led to the general approach of counselling which is used in helplines e.g Samaritans
Roger = transformed psychotherapy + introduced variety of counselling techniques
How is cultural bias (ethnocentric) a problem with the humanism approach?
Humanism centres around freedom and personal growth which is linked to individualistic cultures e.g USA
In collectivist cultures, self actualisation might not be important and cannot be GENERALISED
How is the humanist approach being holistic a strength?
INCREASE VALIDITY TO OTHER APPROACHES
Other approaches e.g bhvrism/biological/psychodynamic try to reduce human bhvr to small components.
Humanism = considers meaningful subjective experiences within its real-world context
Why is the humanism approach rejecting science and scientific research a weakness?
Discards the role of human biology
Rogers = childhood + relationship with parents help with self- concept and good psychological help
Evidence from biology = low serotonin levels leads to depression
Describe the assumptions of the biological approach
Biological psychologists believe bhvr is innate and varies due to variations in our genetics.
Mental illnesses can be explained by physical aspects within the body like physical illnesses
They believe evolution, genetics, neural and hormonal mechanisms explain bhvr the best
How many indvl chromosomes does a person have?
46 chromosomes and 23 pairs
What is a dizygotic twin and how many % of genes do they share?
Fraternal twins
They share 50% of genes
What are monozygotic twins and how many genes do they share?
Identical twins
100%
What is a concordance rate and how does this link to twins?
This is the level of similarity/agreement between two people
MZ = expected to have 100% concordance rate bc genes
What does Gottesman (1991) show in his twin study of Sz?
The general pop. had a risk of 1%
MZ twins = 49% not 100%.
This shows genetics don’t fully contribute to mental illnesses.
What is Phenylketonuria (PKU) and how does it relate to the biological approach?
More biological psychologists are accepting the role of the environment.
PKU = genetic and can cause learning difficulties. Diet = low-protein
PKU is the genotype and the diet’s influence + PKU = phenotype
Define genotype
Genetic make up
Define phenotype
Physical attributes given and expressed by the gene
How does our neurochemistry affect our bhvr.
Neurotransmitters allow communication between cells though chemical impulses across the synapse.
Imbalance = mental illness e.g low serotonin may cause depression
How is bhvr and evolution linked?
Natural selection = genetic characteristics that allow survival is passed on for future generations
How does the biological approach have good application?
Drug treatments and can help manage serious disorders = benefit for the economy
How is twin studies (Gottesman 1991) a weakness of the biological approach?
The concordance rate is never 100% = more research is needed to explain why not all MZ twins get the same symptoms
Interactions approach is better
How is the biological approach methodology in scientific research a strength?
Scientific methods and scanning allows objectivity and consistency in results. This make their results reliable and replicable
