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Psychology Paper 2 > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the key assumption of the cognitive approach?

A

Behaviour can be explained through internal mental processes. Behaviour is motivated by a person’s perception and thinking.

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2
Q

COGNITIVE: How can computer models make inferences about mental processes?

A
  • The development of computers have offered an analogy for the type of processing humans undertake
  • INPUT —> STORAGE —> OUTPUT has been utilised to formulate ideas related to encoding, storage and retrieval e.g. the MSM - LTM has been envisaged as a database that has organised related information
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3
Q

COGNITIVE: What are schemas?

A
  • They are ‘packages’ of information that developed from experience.
  • Additional experiences expand the schema by confirming its shared/general attributes and noting its variations.
  • Schemas for people = stereotypes, for event = scripts
  • Mental representations allow for quick processing of novel information and prevent us from being overwhelmed
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4
Q

COGNITIVE: What is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

A
  • It’s the study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
  • E.g. Broca (1860) identified how damage to the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production
  • In the last 20 years, advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans mean that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
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5
Q

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

A
  • USE OF EMPIRICAL METHODS: Highly controlled rigorous methods of study due to lab experiments producing objective and reliable data.
  • APPLICATIONS: Development in CBT has been used to treat anxiety and depression
  • LESS DETERMINIST: The approach recognises that our cognitive system can only operate within the limits of what we know.
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6
Q

What are the limitations of the cognitive approach?

A
  • APPLICATIONS TOO ABSTRACT: The applications of models may be abstract e.g. central executive in WMM - there is lack of clarity in its function.
  • LACK OF EXTERNAL VALIDITY: Experimental studies of mental processes are often artificial - such as presenting word lists in memory experiments, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
  • MACHINE REDUCTIONISM: Computer analogy ignores influence of human emotion and motivation and how this might affect the ability to process information. Therefore, the analogy oversimplifies the complexities of human info. processing
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7
Q

What is the key concept of the humanistic approach?

A
  • It challenges behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach

- Humanism would concern itself with healthy growth of individuals

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8
Q

HUMANISTIC: What is free will?

A
  • The idea that we have control and we are self-determining

- This does not mean we are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents in our development

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9
Q

HUMANISTIC: What are the 5 stages of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A

FROM TOP TO BOTTOM:

  • Self-actualisation
  • Self-esteem
  • Love + belonging
  • Safety
  • Psychological needs
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10
Q

HUMANISTIC: What is self-actualisation?

A
  • It’s what needs to be achieved to fulfil one’s potential.

- There can be barriers though, so not everyone will be able to achieve this

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11
Q

HUMANISTIC: What is congruence?

A
  • The idea that an individual’s self-concept (how they see themselves) must be equivalent to their ideal self
  • There is incongruence if a person does not perceive themselves to be close to their ideal, meaning that self-actualisation is not possible
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12
Q

HUMANISTIC: What therapy has been set up due to humanism?

A

COUNSELLING:

-The goal is to reduce incongruence and find the root of low self-esteem

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13
Q

HUMANISTIC: What are conditions of the worth?

A

It means a parent has placed limits on their love and expectations that need to be conformed to for affection.

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14
Q

HUMANISTIC: How does counselling link to the conditions of the worth?

A

Therapists are ‘unconditional’, they do not do not judge the individual and provide the positive regard that may have failed to receive as children

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15
Q

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?

A
  • LACK OF DETERMINISM: Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’. Individuals experience themselves as having free will and the power to change. Contrasting with the determinism of other approaches, it offers an optimistic and valid alternative view of people.
  • HOLISTIC NOT REDUCTIONIST: Humanists believe that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real life context.
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16
Q

What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

A
  • LACK OF EVIDENCE: Concepts such as self-actualisation and congruence are abstract and difficult to test. They are useful therapeutic terms but problematic to operationalise, hence there is little empirical evidence to support claims, may not be a surprise as the approach has not supported the drive to see psychology as a science as this may involve reductionism and poor validity.
  • CULTURE BIAS: Humanism originated in the USA. Collectivist cultures that have the needs of the group, community and interdependence as core values may not identify as readily with the ideals of humanistic psychology.
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17
Q

What is the key assumption of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • Assumes drive mechanisms are central to development as are unconscious motives and desires.
  • Early childhood experience is seen as essential in shaping personality.
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18
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What is the unconscious mind?

A
  • It’s the part of the mind that is inaccessible to conscious examination.
  • Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are a product of the unconscious mind
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19
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: How did Freud use the metaphor of an iceberg?

A
  • The tip of the iceberg (visible) represents the conscious mind
  • The much larger of part of the iceberg (hidden underwater) represents the unconscious mind
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20
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What are defence mechanisms?

A
  • They tend to operate unconsciously when triggered by thoughts and events that the person cannot deal with rationally.
  • They distort the challenging element of the situation to bring about a reductions of anxiety and prevent the individual from being overwhelmed with threats in the short term. In the long term they can be maladaptive
21
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What are the 3 defence mechanisms?

A
  • REPRESSION: refers to the blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses/ forcing distress out of the conscious mind, they continue to be influential without the person knowing why
  • DENIAL: refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality. This means not having to deal with painful aspects of experience that maybe apparent.
  • DISPLACEMENT: feeling unable to confront the true source of distressing emotion and transferring feelings onto a substitute target, giving hostile emotions expression, even though misapplied
22
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What is the structure of the personality?

A
  • THE ID is unconscious and it operates as the pleasure principle i.e. it demands immediate gratification regardless of the circumstances
  • THE EGO mediates the context and employs the defence mechanisms to balance the demands of the id and the superego. E.g. it may delay gratifying the id until it’s more appropriate to do so.
  • THE SUPEREGO is the internalised sense of right and wrong and follows the morality principle i.e. it represents the moral standards and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken.
23
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What is the definition of the psychosexual stages?

A
  • Child development occurs in 5 stages
  • The negotiation through these child stages has consequences for adult personality
  • In each stage, the id has a focus for pleasure, interacting with parents determines whether gratification is met or not
  • Any unresolved psychosexual conflict leads to ‘fixation’ carried through to adulthood
24
Q

PSYCHODYNAMIC: What are the 5 psychosexual stages?

A
  • ORAL (0-2): Mouth is the focal point of sensation (sucking and biting)
  • ANAL (2-3): Child becomes aware of the demands of reality. They start toilet training
  • PHALLIC (3-6): Oedipus complex - male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of the father, but this means that boys get a castration anxiety (fear of punishment), so they identify with the father.
  • LATENT (6-12): Child develops their mastery of the world around them. Conflicts with previous stages became repressed
  • GENITAL (12+): Sexual desires become conscious
25
Q

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • PIONEERING: It created a huge shift in psychological thinking. It suggested new methodological procedures of getting data (e.g. case studies + observation)
  • APPLICATION: It’s led to successful treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety. De Maat’s (2009) review of psychotherapy studies found enduring successful treatment of symptoms – again testament to the approaches validity.
26
Q

What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • RELIABILITY: Freud’s theory was based on the intensive study of single individuals who were often in therapy(Little Hans, Dora). Freud’s interpretations were highly subjective, given the same details it is unlikely others would have drawn the same conclusion
  • GENDER BIAS: Freud’s view of human development came from his experience as a male observer in a patriarchal society. He accepted the beliefs that discriminated males and females at the time and it is entrenched in his theory. E.g. the anxiety posed by potential castration in the phallic stage brings about a stronger identification with the parent therefore females have a weaker superego.
  • CULTURE BIAS: Sue and Sue (2008) believe that psychoanalysis has little relevance to those of a non -Western culture. Engaging in ‘unlocking’ the unconscious mind to gain insight is valued by the individualism of Western culture, by contrast, Chinese culture views such expression of emotion as challenging and undesirable. Freud’s own patients were middle class Europeans
27
Q

What is the key assumption of the biological approach?

A

Human behaviour can be explained by recognising that psychological behaviour is stemmed biologically.

28
Q

BIOLOGICAL: What is the assumption regarding the influence of genes?

A
  • Psychological characteristics such as intelligence, personality, mental disorder are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics such as height and eye colour.
  • Twin studies make use of the fact that identical twins (monozygotic twins) share 100% of their genes and non-identical twins share about 50%. Therefore, it can be assumed that if a characteristic is inherited then concordance rates for that aspect are higher in MZ than DZ twins. E.g. concordance rates for schizophrenia.
29
Q

BIOLOGICAL: What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

A
  • A person’s genotype is their actual genetic makeup
  • Whereas phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics – this is inevitably influenced by environmental factors.
30
Q

BIOLOGICAL: What is the impact of neurochemistry on behaviour

A

Investigation into the actual physiology of the brain and how neurotransmitters work has been accelerated by the development of technology that can accurately demonstrate the relationship between brain functioning and behaviour

31
Q

BIOLOGICAL: What is the link between evolution and behaviour?

A

Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection states that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival, traits that give the possessor certain advantages, is more likely to reproduce and pass on these traits to future generations.

32
Q

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

A
  • SCIENTIFIC METHODS: Uses the scientific method, experiments, technology – can claim objective, reliable work that establishes valid causal relationships – highly controlled so replicable and can build confident theories.
  • APPLICATIONS: The role of neurotransmitters in mental health has been pivotal in improving the functioning of many individuals who previously experienced personal distress and societal stigmatisation. Examples are SSRI’s in the treatment of depression and OCD.
33
Q

What are the limitations of the biological approach?

A
  • REDUCTIONIST: By looking for one explanatory element – gene, neurotransmitter, drive, and then it cannot take into account the complexity of behaviour. It is highly unlikely that a single mechanism is causal – recent theories attempt a more complex analysis.
  • PROBLEMS WITH EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS: Critics of this approach claim that many established patterns of behaviour have cultural origins with no survival or reproductive value. For example, cross cultural research reveals inconsistencies in aggressive behaviour – aggression has been explained as naturally assisting survival of threats, one would expect as a drive mechanism that this would be seen universally – but it is not, some cultures sanction aggression and it is not modelled in those societies.
34
Q

What is the key assumption of the learning approach?

A

Behaviour is a product of experience. Few behaviours; other than reflexes, are not acquired

35
Q

LEARNING: What is classical conditioning (CC)?

A
  • All animals are born with reflexes, in behaviour this is a stimulus(S) and its natural response(R) (e.g. object near eye = blink, S-R).
  • When other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus, they too eventually trigger the same response.
36
Q

LEARNING: Outline Pavlov’s research

A
  • Whilst investigating the salivation of dogs, Pavlov observed that dogs salivated before the presentation of food.
  • This intrigued him as naturally food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and salivation the unconditioned response (UCR).
  • He experimented by pairing the presentation of food with a neutral stimulus, ringing a bell (NS).
  • He found after successive pairings, dogs salivated to the sound of the bell in absence of food (CR). The dogs had learned to associate the bell, now a conditioned stimulus (CS) with food, to produce the response expected of that stimulus.
37
Q

LEARNING: What is Operant Conditioning (OC)?

A

The idea that we learn through reinforcements (consequences)

38
Q

LEARNING: What are the 3 types of reinforcement?

A
  • Positive Reinforcement – a behaviour is more likely to reoccur because of positive consequences
  • Negative Reinforcement - a behaviour is more likely to reoccur because of avoidance of negative consequences
  • Punishment – a behaviour is less likely to reoccur because of negative consequences.
39
Q

LEARNING: Outline Skinner’s research

A
  • Skinner worked with ‘the Skinner box’. It contained levers that could administer reinforcements to rats and pigeons.
  • When pressed by the animal they delivered food pellets (positive reinforcement) or electric shocks through the metal floor (punishment)
  • Any actions taken by the animal to avoid the shocks would then be negative reinforcement.
40
Q

LEARNING: What is a reinforcement schedule?

A

The frequency with which reinforcement is administered can affect how likely the behaviour is to occur

41
Q

LEARNING: What are the strengths of CC and OC?

A
  • EMPIRICAL: Both CC and OC rely on the experimental method. By using controlled conditions, Pavlov and Skinner were able to establish causal relationships by manipulation of the IV and careful measurement of the DV.
  • APPLICATION: CC has led to the development of therapies for the reduction of anxiety i.e. systematic desensitisation and phobias. This is counter conditioning; the therapist tries to replace one learned response - fear, with another – relaxation.
42
Q

LEARNING: What are the limitations of CC and OC?

A
  • ANIMALS: CC and OC have mainly used non-human animals as opposed to humans. This reliance on animals tells us little about human behaviour. Humans have consciousness and free will, an ability to resist conditioning and impose meaning on the status of re-enforcements available.
  • REDUCTIONIST: Other potential factors are ignored such a cognitive factors or emotional states. Skinner was adamant that these internal states were untestable, in addition complex behaviours such as relationships and mental health could still be understood by studying the reinforcement history of the individual.
43
Q

LEARNING: What is Social Learning Theory (SLT)?

A

In order to acquire information, we need only to observe it being modelled by another. Models can be any person that the individual looks up to

44
Q

LEARNING: What does imitation of the model mean when referring to SLT?

A
  • An individual copies the actions of the model.
  • This requires that the observer has the ability to retain the behaviour as a mental representation for future reproduction (mediational processes).
45
Q

LEARNING: How does Vicarious Reinforcement link to SLT?

A
  • Imitation is more likely if the outcome will be positive
  • This is particularly the case if the observer has seen the model rewarded for their behaviour (vicarious reinforcement) and has the self-belief that they can perform the action successfully.
46
Q

LEARNING: What is identification in reference to SLT?

A

The degree to which an observer feels that they are similar to the model and also increases the likelihood of modelling.

47
Q

LEARNING: What was Bandura’s experiment?

A
  • Half of the children were exposed to a non-aggressive model, the others an aggressive model who struck a ‘bobo doll’ in a playroom and accompanied their distinctive actions with novel verbal comments.
  • The children passed toys they could not play with and were taken to a room that had a Bobo doll amongst other toys – children who observed the aggressive model displayed a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model.
  • Children who had not been presented with an aggressive model exhibited virtually no aggression toward the Bobo doll or made comment.
48
Q

LEARNING: What are the strengths of SLT?

A
  • VALIDITY: Akers (1998) has related exposure to criminal models, identification and likelihood of reward as factors in committing crime. Ulrich (2003) supports this claim in a review of the literature found the strongest cause of violent behaviour in adolescence was association with delinquent peer groups where violence was both modelled and rewarded.
  • APPLICATIONS: The importance of identification to health behaviours has been supported by Andsager et al (2006) found that perceived similarity to a model in an anti – alcohol ad was positively related to the message’s effectiveness.
49
Q

LEARNING: What are the weaknesses of SLT?

A
  • CAUSALITY: we cannot be sure whether those behaviours result from modelling or a pre-existing determinant. I.e. it has been suggested that adolescents are likely to seek out others who have similar attitudes and therefore the potential to behave anti-socially was an existing trait prior to association with the delinquent group.
  • LACKS COMPLEXITY: Theorists would argue the case that modelling still shaped the anti - social behaviour in terms of primary socialisation in the home. However, the predisposition maybe a biological one – aggression has been associated with low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin/high levels of dopamine

Psychology Paper 2 (4 decks)

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