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Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

John Locke (1632-1704)

A

Locke proposed empiricism which later formed the basis of the behaviourist approach

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2
Q

Empiricism

A

The idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human beings inherit neither knowledge or instincts

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3
Q

Introspection

A

The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states

Allows us to observe our inner world

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4
Q

What did Wundt believe introspection could do

A

Allow us to observe mental processes such as memory, feelings and perception

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5
Q

Problem using introspection to investigate ‘non-observable’ responses

A

It is subjective
People may lie, reducing validity and reliability
Many mental processes do not happen consciously

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6
Q

What was the new scientific approach to psychology based on

A

All behaviour is seen as being caused
If behaviour is determined by a cause then it should be possible to predict how humans would behave in different conditions

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7
Q

Behaviourist approach

A

Studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
Uses lab experiments to create a controlled and objective environment
Suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species

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8
Q

Types of conditioning

A

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

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9
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Known as stimulus response learning

Works by building up an association between two stimuli

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10
Q

Strengths of classical conditioning

A

Therapies - aversion therapy or systematic desensitisation

Advertising - link emotion with a product even when seen separately

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11
Q

UCS in Pavlov’s study

A

Unconditioned stimulus - food

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12
Q

UCR in Pavlov’s study

A

Unconditioned response - salivation

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13
Q

NS in Pavlov’s study

A

Neutral stimulus - Bell

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14
Q

CS in Pavlov’s study

A

Conditioned stimulus - Bell

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15
Q

CR in Pavlov’s study

A

Conditioned response - Salivation

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16
Q

Before conditioning

A

UCS —> UCR

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17
Q

During conditioning

A

UCS + NS —> UCR

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18
Q

After conditioning

A

CS —> CR

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19
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Skinner believed that ‘behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences’, which were reinforcement or punishment

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20
Q

Skinners experiment

A

Skinner taught rats to learn a specific response. He developed ways of reinforcing rats using food pellets, since rats were hungry he rewarded them. E.g. food was only released when the red light was on and not the green light. Rats quickly learnt to press the lever when the red light was on

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21
Q

Consequences according to Skinner

A

Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment

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22
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed

E.g. praise from a teacher when answering a question

Increases likelihood of behaviour

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23
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

When a person avoids something unpleasant. The avoidance of that thing is the negative reinforcement

E.g. a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off

Increases likelihood of behaviour

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24
Q

Punishment

A

An unpleasant consequence of behaviour

E.g. being shouted at by a teacher during a lesson

Decreases likelihood of behaviour

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25
Neutral stimulus
Any environmentally stimulus that does not produce a behavioural response
26
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that produces a natural, unlearnt behavioural response
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Unconditioned response
Any response which occurs naturally without learning
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Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that has been associated with an UCS. It now produces the same response as the UCS on its own
29
Conditioned response
A learnt behaviour that is shown in response to a learnt stimulus
30
Social learning theory
Different way in which people learn through observation and imitation of others within a social context Bridge between behaviourism and cognitive approach
31
Steps in SLT
``` Modelling Observation Imitation Identification Vicarious reinforcement ```
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Attention
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
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Retention
How well the behaviour is remembered
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Motor reproduction
The ability of the observe to perform the behaviour
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Motivation
The will to perform the behaviour which is determined by whether or not the behaviour was rewarded or punished
36
Strength of classical conditioning
Based on scientific and empirical evidence —> reproducible (higher validity) Tangible explanation —> easier to understand and apply
37
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
CR doesn’t become established —> after no. of times CS is seen w/out UCS it doesn’t produces CR
38
Strength of operant conditioning
Findings are simple enough to implement
39
Weakness of operant conditioning
Doesn’t always work —> people could lie
40
Weakness of application of conditioning
Doesn’t take into account variables like individual difference
41
Strength of applications of conditioning
Improves lives of others —> aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation
42
Generalisability of behaviourist approach
Ignores internal process (scientific) —> stats produced Artificial lab setting —> lack ecological validity Reductionist (based solely on association and cause and effect) —> easy to manipulate evidence
43
Ethical issues of behaviourist approach
Watson and Raynor (1920) - Little Albert | B.F. Skinner - rats can’t consent
44
Strengths of SLT
Useful application e.g. in criminal behaviour Research support by Fox and Ballenson
45
Weaknesses of SLT
A problem of casualty A problem of complexity Ignores important influences on behaviour e.g. testosterone causing boys’ aggression
46
Assumptions of cognitive approach
It is the internal mental processes that must be studied scientifically in order to understand behaviour e.g. memory, perception and thinking (using inference) Many diff kinds of mental processes contribute to processing info - incudes attention, thinking, storing it in memory and retrieving
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Theoretical models
One way to study internal mental processes | Info processing approach suggests that info flows through a cognitive system that inputs, stores and retrieves info
48
Computer Models
Mind is compared to a computer Info is processed centrally in the brain, coding is then used to turn info into a useable format then the info is stored Helped develop AI
49
The role of schemas
'Packages' of ideas and info developed through experience Based on beliefs and expectations Act as mental framework for interpretation of incoming info May distort interpretation of sensory info (Bugelski and Alampay (1962) - Rat Man)
50
Cognitive neuroscience
Scientific study of influence of brain structure on internal mental processes Non-invasive neuroimaging techniques help psychologists understand how the brain supports diff. emotions and cognitive processes by showing brain activity
51
Strengths of cognitive approach
Uses experimental methods to research --> scientific rigour Despite artificial nature, useful application (social psychology - eliminating biases and error influencing interpretation of behaviour) Cognitive neuroscience removed reductive nature of approach with inclusion of bio
52
Weaknesses of cognitive approach
Lacks in ecological validity Use of theoretical models can be seen as over-simplifying human behaviour and cognitions Limitations of computer models
53
Assumptions of psychodynamic approach
Human behaviour has unconscious causes that individuals are unaware of Childhood experience are important influences on the development of adult disorders An individual experiences constant psycho dynamic conflict
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Conscious mind
Mental processes of which we are fully aware of
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Preconscious mind
Thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of through dreams of 'Freudian slips'
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Unconscious mind
Biologically driven Urges that influence our behaviour and personality Repressed memories All of which we are unaware
57
Structure of personality
iD Ego Superego
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The iD
Instinctive part of personality Acts on pleasure principle Selfish - concerned with granting instant gratification
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The Ego
Rational part of personality Acts on reality principle Develops at 2 and is a mediator Employs defence mechanism
60
The Superego
Formed at end of phallic stage Internalised sense of right and wrong Based on morality and expectations of same sex parent Punishes ego - guilt
61
Psychosexual stages
``` Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital ```
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Oral stage
Birth - 18 months Mouth is source of pleasure Breast is main focus of desire
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Oral fixation
Smoking Biting nails Sarcasm Critical
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Anal stage
18 months - 3 years Anus is main source of pleasure Pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces
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Anally retentive
Very tidy Stubborn Perfectionist Obsessive
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Anally expulsive
Generous but disorganised Messy Thoughtless
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Phallic stage
3 - 5 years Genitals are source of pleasure Develop gender identity through Oedipus and Electra complex
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Phallic personality
Narcissism Reckless Possibly homosexual
69
Latency stage
5 - 12 years | Conflicts and issues repressed
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Latent stage leads to ...
Children being unable to remember much of their early years
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Genital stage
12 year plus Sexual desires become conscious during puberty Consequence of unresolved conflict - difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
72
Strengths of psychodynamic approach
New form of therapies - psychoanalysis | Remained dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century
73
Weaknesses of psychodynamic approach
Case study Based on males (penis envy, castration fear) Concepts not falsifiable
74
Assumptions of biological approach
Everything psychological is first biological, to understand behaviour look to biological structures and processes within body - such as genes The mind lives in the brain – meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
75
Influence of genes on behaviour
Twin studies used to determine likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis. If concordance rates are higher in monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins, this would suggest a genetic basis of behaviour
76
Genotype
What genes code for e.g. aggression levels
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Phenotype
What’s on display and can be changed by environment
78
Evolution and behaviour
Charles Darwin – those with genes better suited to environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, pass on those genes to offspring -> will become more widespread in population -> successive generations will develop behaviours that are even more likely to survive in their environment
79
Strengths of biological approach
Uses scientific methods | Real life applications
80
Weaknesses of biological approach
Deterministic Cannot separate nature and nurture Reductionist Shows several casual conclusions instead of cause and effect
81
When did humanistic psychology emerge
In the US in the 1950’s from the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow as a reaction to the pessimism of the psychodynamic approach and determinism of the learning approach
82
Assumptions of humanistic approach
Human beings have free will and full conscious control over their own destiny Believes we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development. Believe we are all unique and psychology should concern itself with subjective experience of the individual rather than general laws
83
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
In ascending order: ``` Physiological Safety Love/ belonging Esteem Self-actualisation ```
84
How can personal growth and psychological health be achieved
An individual’s concept of the self must be broadly equivalent to their ideal self When the two are similar, a state of congruence exists
85
What can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard
Issues many adults face e.g. low self-worth and self-esteem
86
Client-centred therapy
Helps people cope with the problems of everyday life | Reduces the gap between the self and ideal self
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Aim of Rogerian therapy
Increase the person’s feeling of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence between the self and the ideal self, and help the person become more fully functional
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How did Roger’s see the individuals he counselled as
Experts on their own condition. Thus, therapy is non-directive
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Weaknesses of humanistic approach
Includes no. of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test —> cause and effect can’t be established Approach has had limited impact on the discipline of psych as a whole —> Roger’s didn’t use experimental research methods Concepts within approach only relevant to certain groups of individuals —> autonomy and personal growth only in individualistic cultures, not collectivist
90
Strengths of humanistic approach
Considered to be holistic —> believes subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person Evidence to support Rogers —> Harter (1996)
91
Conditions of worth
A child is only loved and accepted if their behaviour is deemed to be acceptable
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Mediating cognitive factors
Thought processes that lie between internal mental processes e.g. thinking, attention, memory
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Evaluation of behaviourist approach
Highly controlled Application - behaviour modification therapy for autism Deterministic - ignores free will Reductionist - simplifies provesses, ignites internal mental processes Testing on animals - BF Skinner Watson and Rayner (1920) - little Albert
94
Self actualisation
Innate tendency to reach one’s full potential | Highest in hiercarchy of need
95
Why do cognitive psychologists use input-process-output model
Turns abstract concepts into concrete form

Pschology (6 decks)

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