Approaches Flashcards
John Locke (1632-1704)
Locke proposed empiricism which later formed the basis of the behaviourist approach
Empiricism
The idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human beings inherit neither knowledge or instincts
Introspection
The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states
Allows us to observe our inner world
What did Wundt believe introspection could do
Allow us to observe mental processes such as memory, feelings and perception
Problem using introspection to investigate ‘non-observable’ responses
It is subjective
People may lie, reducing validity and reliability
Many mental processes do not happen consciously
What was the new scientific approach to psychology based on
All behaviour is seen as being caused
If behaviour is determined by a cause then it should be possible to predict how humans would behave in different conditions
Behaviourist approach
Studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
Uses lab experiments to create a controlled and objective environment
Suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
Types of conditioning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Known as stimulus response learning
Works by building up an association between two stimuli
Strengths of classical conditioning
Therapies - aversion therapy or systematic desensitisation
Advertising - link emotion with a product even when seen separately
UCS in Pavlov’s study
Unconditioned stimulus - food
UCR in Pavlov’s study
Unconditioned response - salivation
NS in Pavlov’s study
Neutral stimulus - Bell
CS in Pavlov’s study
Conditioned stimulus - Bell
CR in Pavlov’s study
Conditioned response - Salivation
Before conditioning
UCS —> UCR
During conditioning
UCS + NS —> UCR
After conditioning
CS —> CR
Operant conditioning
Skinner believed that ‘behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences’, which were reinforcement or punishment
Skinners experiment
Skinner taught rats to learn a specific response. He developed ways of reinforcing rats using food pellets, since rats were hungry he rewarded them. E.g. food was only released when the red light was on and not the green light. Rats quickly learnt to press the lever when the red light was on
Consequences according to Skinner
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Positive reinforcement
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
E.g. praise from a teacher when answering a question
Increases likelihood of behaviour
Negative reinforcement
When a person avoids something unpleasant. The avoidance of that thing is the negative reinforcement
E.g. a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off
Increases likelihood of behaviour
Punishment
An unpleasant consequence of behaviour
E.g. being shouted at by a teacher during a lesson
Decreases likelihood of behaviour
Neutral stimulus
Any environmentally stimulus that does not produce a behavioural response
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that produces a natural, unlearnt behavioural response
Unconditioned response
Any response which occurs naturally without learning
Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that has been associated with an UCS. It now produces the same response as the UCS on its own
Conditioned response
A learnt behaviour that is shown in response to a learnt stimulus
Social learning theory
Different way in which people learn through observation and imitation of others within a social context
Bridge between behaviourism and cognitive approach
Steps in SLT
Modelling Observation Imitation Identification Vicarious reinforcement
Attention
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention
How well the behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction
The ability of the observe to perform the behaviour
Motivation
The will to perform the behaviour which is determined by whether or not the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Strength of classical conditioning
Based on scientific and empirical evidence —> reproducible (higher validity)
Tangible explanation —> easier to understand and apply
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
CR doesn’t become established —> after no. of times CS is seen w/out UCS it doesn’t produces CR
Strength of operant conditioning
Findings are simple enough to implement
Weakness of operant conditioning
Doesn’t always work —> people could lie
Weakness of application of conditioning
Doesn’t take into account variables like individual difference
Strength of applications of conditioning
Improves lives of others —> aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation
Generalisability of behaviourist approach
Ignores internal process (scientific) —> stats produced
Artificial lab setting —> lack ecological validity
Reductionist (based solely on association and cause and effect) —> easy to manipulate evidence
Ethical issues of behaviourist approach
Watson and Raynor (1920) - Little Albert
B.F. Skinner - rats can’t consent
Strengths of SLT
Useful application e.g. in criminal behaviour
Research support by Fox and Ballenson
Weaknesses of SLT
A problem of casualty
A problem of complexity
Ignores important influences on behaviour e.g. testosterone causing boys’ aggression
Assumptions of cognitive approach
It is the internal mental processes that must be studied scientifically in order to understand behaviour e.g. memory, perception and thinking (using inference)
Many diff kinds of mental processes contribute to processing info - incudes attention, thinking, storing it in memory and retrieving
Theoretical models
One way to study internal mental processes
Info processing approach suggests that info flows through a cognitive system that inputs, stores and retrieves info
Computer Models
Mind is compared to a computer
Info is processed centrally in the brain, coding is then used to turn info into a useable format then the info is stored
Helped develop AI
The role of schemas
‘Packages’ of ideas and info developed through experience
Based on beliefs and expectations
Act as mental framework for interpretation of incoming info
May distort interpretation of sensory info (Bugelski and Alampay (1962) - Rat Man)
Cognitive neuroscience
Scientific study of influence of brain structure on internal mental processes
Non-invasive neuroimaging techniques help psychologists understand how the brain supports diff. emotions and cognitive processes by showing brain activity
Strengths of cognitive approach
Uses experimental methods to research –> scientific rigour
Despite artificial nature, useful application (social psychology - eliminating biases and error influencing interpretation of behaviour)
Cognitive neuroscience removed reductive nature of approach with inclusion of bio
Weaknesses of cognitive approach
Lacks in ecological validity
Use of theoretical models can be seen as over-simplifying human behaviour and cognitions
Limitations of computer models
Assumptions of psychodynamic approach
Human behaviour has unconscious causes that individuals are unaware of
Childhood experience are important influences on the development of adult disorders
An individual experiences constant psycho dynamic conflict
Conscious mind
Mental processes of which we are fully aware of
Preconscious mind
Thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of through dreams of ‘Freudian slips’
Unconscious mind
Biologically driven
Urges that influence our behaviour and personality
Repressed memories
All of which we are unaware
Structure of personality
iD
Ego
Superego
The iD
Instinctive part of personality
Acts on pleasure principle
Selfish - concerned with granting instant gratification
The Ego
Rational part of personality
Acts on reality principle
Develops at 2 and is a mediator
Employs defence mechanism
The Superego
Formed at end of phallic stage
Internalised sense of right and wrong
Based on morality and expectations of same sex parent
Punishes ego - guilt
Psychosexual stages
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
Oral stage
Birth - 18 months
Mouth is source of pleasure
Breast is main focus of desire
Oral fixation
Smoking
Biting nails
Sarcasm
Critical
Anal stage
18 months - 3 years
Anus is main source of pleasure
Pleasure from withholding or expelling faeces
Anally retentive
Very tidy
Stubborn
Perfectionist
Obsessive
Anally expulsive
Generous but disorganised
Messy
Thoughtless
Phallic stage
3 - 5 years
Genitals are source of pleasure
Develop gender identity through Oedipus and Electra complex
Phallic personality
Narcissism
Reckless
Possibly homosexual
Latency stage
5 - 12 years
Conflicts and issues repressed
Latent stage leads to …
Children being unable to remember much of their early years
Genital stage
12 year plus
Sexual desires become conscious during puberty
Consequence of unresolved conflict - difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Strengths of psychodynamic approach
New form of therapies - psychoanalysis
Remained dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century
Weaknesses of psychodynamic approach
Case study
Based on males (penis envy, castration fear)
Concepts not falsifiable
Assumptions of biological approach
Everything psychological is first biological, to understand behaviour look to biological structures and processes within body - such as genes
The mind lives in the brain – meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
Influence of genes on behaviour
Twin studies used to determine likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis. If concordance rates are higher in monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins, this would suggest a genetic basis of behaviour
Genotype
What genes code for e.g. aggression levels
Phenotype
What’s on display and can be changed by environment
Evolution and behaviour
Charles Darwin – those with genes better suited to environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, pass on those genes to offspring -> will become more widespread in population -> successive generations will develop behaviours that are even more likely to survive in their environment
Strengths of biological approach
Uses scientific methods
Real life applications
Weaknesses of biological approach
Deterministic
Cannot separate nature and nurture
Reductionist
Shows several casual conclusions instead of cause and effect
When did humanistic psychology emerge
In the US in the 1950’s from the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow as a reaction to the pessimism of the psychodynamic approach and determinism of the learning approach
Assumptions of humanistic approach
Human beings have free will and full conscious control over their own destiny
Believes we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
Believe we are all unique and psychology should concern itself with subjective experience of the individual rather than general laws
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
In ascending order:
Physiological Safety Love/ belonging Esteem Self-actualisation
How can personal growth and psychological health be achieved
An individual’s concept of the self must be broadly equivalent to their ideal self
When the two are similar, a state of congruence exists
What can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard
Issues many adults face e.g. low self-worth and self-esteem
Client-centred therapy
Helps people cope with the problems of everyday life
Reduces the gap between the self and ideal self
Aim of Rogerian therapy
Increase the person’s feeling of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence between the self and the ideal self, and help the person become more fully functional
How did Roger’s see the individuals he counselled as
Experts on their own condition. Thus, therapy is non-directive
Weaknesses of humanistic approach
Includes no. of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test —> cause and effect can’t be established
Approach has had limited impact on the discipline of psych as a whole —> Roger’s didn’t use experimental research methods
Concepts within approach only relevant to certain groups of individuals —> autonomy and personal growth only in individualistic cultures, not collectivist
Strengths of humanistic approach
Considered to be holistic —> believes subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
Evidence to support Rogers —> Harter (1996)
Conditions of worth
A child is only loved and accepted if their behaviour is deemed to be acceptable
Mediating cognitive factors
Thought processes that lie between internal mental processes e.g. thinking, attention, memory
Evaluation of behaviourist approach
Highly controlled
Application - behaviour modification therapy for autism
Deterministic - ignores free will
Reductionist - simplifies provesses, ignites internal mental processes
Testing on animals - BF Skinner
Watson and Rayner (1920) - little Albert
Self actualisation
Innate tendency to reach one’s full potential
Highest in hiercarchy of need
Why do cognitive psychologists use input-process-output model
Turns abstract concepts into concrete form
