Approaches Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
Behaviourist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
Classical conditioning
Learning by association.occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together (an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.) The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was the first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive/negative.
Social Learning Theory
a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
Imitation
Copying the behaviour of others.
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
Modelling
From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
Vicarious Reinforcement
Reinforcement which isn’t directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
Mediational Processes
Cognitive factors (thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
Cognitive Approach
This approach is focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour.
Internal Mental Processes
Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of the observed behaviour.
Cognitive Neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
Biological Approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.
Genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring.
Biological Structure
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
Neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning.
Genotype
The particular set of genes that a person possesses.
Phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment.
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
Nervous system
Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Central Nervous System
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions.
Peripheral Nervous System
Sends information to he CNS from the outside world and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body.
Somatic Nervous System
Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organ to the CNS. It also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act.
Autonomic Nervous System
Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is autonomic as the system operates involuntarily. It has 2 main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Neuron
The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals.
Sensory neurons
These carry messages from the PNS to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons.
Relay neurons
These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.
Motor Neurons
These connect the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.
Psychodynamic approach
A perspective that describes the different forces most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
The unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour.
Id
Entirely unconscious the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification.
Ego
The reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the Id and the superego.
Superego
The moralistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self how we ought to be.
Defence Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and he superego.
Psychosexual stages
5 developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict the outcome of which determines future development.
Oral stage
0-1 years. Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is object of desire. Oral fixation-smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical etc.
Anal stage
1-3 years. Focus of pleasure is the anus. Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces. Anal retentive and anal expulsive.
Anal retentive
perfectionist, obsessive
Anal expulsive
thoughtless,messy
Phallic stage
3-5 years. Focus of pleasure is the genital area. Child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex. Phallic personality-narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
Latency
Earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Repression
Forcing a distress memory out of the conscious mind
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
Displacement
Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
Humanistic psychology approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination.
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
self-actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential-becoming what you are capable of.
Hierarchy of needs
A 5-levelled hierarchal sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied before psychological needs can be achieved.
Self
The ideas and values that characterise I and me and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do.’
Congruence
The aim of rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match.
Conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children; EG a parent saying to a child ‘I will only love you if you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up with that boy.’
