Approaches Flashcards
What are the two forms of learning?
Classical conditioning- learning through association/Pavlov
Operant conditioning- learning through reinforcement and punishment/ Skinner
Explain classical conditioning
When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of the stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response.
The food for example acts as an unconditioned stimulus which makes the dog give an unconditioned response of salivating.
When a bell is rung when given with food it becomes a neutral stimulus and produces salivating when it is a unconditioned response.
Explain the four features of classical conditioning
Timing- if the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two it is too great) the conditioning does not take places
Extinction- unlike the UCS, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it uses ability to produce CR
Spontaneous- following extinction, if the CS and UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly
Stimulus generation- once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
Define in detail operant conditioning
Term used by B.F Skinner to describe how the consequences an action can make that action more or less likely to be repeated. people learn to perform new behaviours through the consequences of the behaviours they do. If behaviour is followed by reinforcement then the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated increases in future
What is positive reinforcement?
Consequences which are pleasant and which bring about a behaviour
What is negative reinforcement?
Behaviour is repeated in order to escape an unpleasant consequence
What are schedules of reinforcement?
A continuous reinforcement is most effective in establishing a paticulaf response, a partial reinforcement schedule is more effective in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction- reinforcing something every now and again
What is punishment?
If behaviour is followed by punishment then the likelihood of that behaviour being related in future decreases
EVALUATION
Behavioural approach
Give two strengths and weaknesses
+ scientific methods
Insistence on objectivity. Control over extraneous variables and precise measurements
Results are valid- can establish cause and effect
+effective for some disorders/ practical solutions to many human problems
Operant conditioning is an effective way of modifying behavioural find it hard to learn the ways
Phobias- benefited from behavioural therapies
- it is deterministic
Assumed to be controlled by their environment/ no choosing their own actions- nurture side/ reductionist
- nature/ nature debate
There ate genetic influences on what animals can and cannot learn
Generalisations between species
What is the behaviourist approach?
The approach where behaviour is learnt from the environment
Humans and animals learn as a response to the environment changes and consequences of behaviour
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and it is these behaviours that should be studied
What is the learning approach? (Social leaning theory)
We learn t behave by watching others and copying their behaviour
What is imitation?
The action of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour
What is identification?
A form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a paticulaf group
What is modelling?
A form of learning where individuals learn a paticular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Occurs when someone observes another person’s behaviour being rewarded or punished. Likely to repeat if behaviour is rewarded
What is the role of mediational processes?
There are a range of meditational processes such as memory, attention and motivation that can influence behaviour
Discuss the research by Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Aim
A-Bandura conducted a study to investigate if social behaviour can be required by imitation
Discuss the research by Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Producer
Children observed adult model behaviour that was aggressive/non- aggressive
We’re tested for imitative learning
50%- aggressive adults
50%- non aggressive
Saw some attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with
Taken to a room with a Bobo doll
Discuss the research by Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Finding
Observed aggressive model showed verbal and physically abusive to doll
One third of aggressive model reaped the model’s verbal responses
Being awarded for behaviour- high levels of agrees in
Children learn behaviour by observation and imitation
EVALUATION
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment
Give a strength and a weakness
Gibe A03
+ the study was an experiment so extraneous variables were controlled
Results will be more reliable- other factors won’t be in way
Accurate data- can establish cause and effect
- the study was an experiment so was artificial
Lacks ecological validity- can’t apply to other Sicily seeking
+ application to real life
Increases understanding of human behaviour e.g criminal behaviour
- ethical issues
Did they consent?
Lack of informed consent- ppts were children
Psychological harm
A03
Ulrich 2003-
Strongest cause of violent behaviour in conscience was association with peer group/ behaviour was modelled
EVALUATION
Social Learning approach
\+ the methods Objectivity, control over extraneous variables and precise measurements/ studies are very reliable \+useful applications Used to understand children's/ criminal behaviour - approach is deterministic Assumed to be controlled by environment Nuture side - cause and effect Free will/ more complex Multiple factors- genetics
What is the cognitive approach?
Emphasises our ability to process information before we respond/ react
Why was it developed in the 1960s?
To react to the behaviourist approach and that humans are simply responding to their environment stimuli.
Why are treatments called cognitive behavioural therapy?
Researchers were concerned over the lack of attention given to cognitive processes
How do cognitive psychologists explain human behaviour?
People try to actively make sense of their environment by imposing order and meaning on the things they encounter
Are based around the ways in which people organise and process information relevant to paticular ways of acting
What is a schema?
Are ways of organising knowledge and experience of the world into generic templates that are used to make sense of objects, situations and people we encounter
What and how do cognitive psychologists measure behaviour?
Inferring- studied indirectly by measuring the behaviour of some- optical illusion
Schema- cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information based on expected behaviour in certain seconds
Theoretical models- MSM is simplified representation based on current research advice
What is the role of theoretical and computer models?
You can’t always explain how composted memory is so models help us to understand things like memory
Simple representations based on current research evidence
What is the role of computer models?
Focuses on the way in which sensory information is ‘coded’ as it passes through the system
Compartmentalise files- try to access it
Info is inpitted though the senses and then combined with previously stored info to do tasks
What is the biological approach?
Behaviour is the result of physical causes
How do genetics effect behaviour?
significant research findings in family studies suggest an inherted predisposition. For example dominant and recessive genes. 3% more likely to develop schizophrenia if your parents have it
How do neurotransmitters effect behaviour?
They are chemicals that carry signals between brain cells suggesting that too much or too littler neurotransmitter may result in a change of behaviour. For example too much serotonin can lead to depression. Too little dopamine can lead to schizpjonria.
How does our brain scrucrure and changes in the nervous system effect our behaviour?
Can alter people’s behaviour. For example adrenaline can increase our heart rate and our eye pupils increase.
What is a genotype?
What is a phenotype?
Genotype- genetic make up of an individual
Phenotype- physical characteristics
What is a neurotransmitter?
A neutron is connected to other neurons. Each sends and electrical message
What is a sympathetic hormone?
What is a parasympathetic hormone?
Speeds system up
Slows system down
How does behaviour evolve?
E.g aggression
Natural selection means organisms adapt to their environment over time
There is competition to survive and those that do survive reproduce
1989- Buss studied 37 different cultures found universal similarities
Women- desired males with resource
Men- physically attractive women
EVALUATION
biological approach to psychology
\+ importance of the scientific method Extraneous methods/ high validity \+ approach to clear predictions e.g the effect of neurotransmitters Significant application e.g anti depressants - it is reductionist Human behaviour can be broken down into its smallest components parts- genes Other factors - evolutionary explanation of behaviour More cultural- e.g invest
BIOPSYCHOLOGY
What is the function of nervous system?
It is a biological highway and is responsible for controlling processes and movements in the body, interprets info via electrical signals
What is the function of the CNS
It is responsible for receiving and interpreting signals from the peripheral nervous system and sends out signals to it, via neves
It is the centre of the nervous system. It consists of the brain and spinal cord.
What is the function of the peripheral nervous system
It consists mainly of neurons, and connect the CNS to every other part of the body
It is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous system
What are neurons?
Bundles of the long fibres or axons that connect to one another and connect the CNS to every other part of the body
What is the function of the somatic nervous system
PNS
The somatic fibres are responsible for the voluntary movement of our body
Receives messages from the sensory receptors
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system?
Incorporates all the impulses that are done involuntarily- vital bodily function e.g breathing, heart rAte, sexual arousal.
This can be broken down into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
What is the function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
(Autonomic nervous system)
Sympathetic- activated in cases of emergency to mobilze energy
Parasympathetic- when organisms are in a relaxed state
What is the function of sensory neurons?
Tells the rest of the brain about the external and internal environment by processing information taken from one of the five senses
Carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord
What is the function of relay neurons?
Carries messages from one part of the CNS to another. They connect motor and sensory neurons
Allows senses and motor neurons to communicate
What is the function of motor neurons?
Carries signals from the CNS which help both organs, including glands and muscles
Releases neurotransmitters when stimulated
Forms synapses
What is a synapse?
The gap that separates each neurons
How are signals transferred within a neuron?
Electrically via axons
How are signals transferred between neurons?
Chemically via neurotransmitters
What is a presynaptic terminal?
the end of a neuron
What happens when an electrical signal releases the end of the neuron?
It triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from a tiny sac called a synoptic vesicle
How does the neurotransmitter get across the synapse to the next neuron?
Through diffusion
What is the postsynoatic receptor site?
The point where the neurotransmitter hits the next neuron
Describe and outline what a synaptic transmission is
A neurotransmitter hits the presynaptic terminal which triggers neurotransmitters to be released from the synoptic vesicles and to cross the synapse via diffusion and received by the postsynoatic recetor sites and then onto the next neuron
With reference to neurotransmitters explain what is meant by excitation
When a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and continue to send a signal
With reference to neurotransmitters explain what is meant by inhibition
Increases the negative charge of the postsynoatic neuron and decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire and continue to send a signal
What is memories are in the sub-conscious? (psychodynamic)
Memories we could be aware of if we tried
What memories are in the conscious?
the ones we remember easily/ the small amount of mental activity we know about
What memories are in the unconscious?
memories we are unaware of/ suppressed memories
What does the unconscious mind do?
it defends and prevents us from remembering traumatic events/ it is a defence mechanism to help avoud anxiety/
What three parts makes up the psyche?
Id, superego, ego
What did Freud suggest was the cause if abnormalities? (psyche)
The unsuccessful mediation of the Id, superego and ego
What is the ego?
It is the decision maker that chooses the reality, it meditates between the id and the superego to make a responsible decision
What is the Id? Where is it located? what does it contain?
it is our natural instincts and impulsions/ In the unconscious/ the libido
What is the pleasure principle?
the demand from the id to have immediate gratification of needs in the circumstances
What is the superego?
The rules we learn in the external world/ it is the internalisation of social rules/ is our mortality/ it is in the conscious and in the ego idea
What is repression?
The unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses/ they unconsciously influence our behaviour without us knowing it
What is denial?
refusal to accept reality/ so they do not have to deal with the feelings associated with the event/
What is displacement?
Redirecting thoughts and feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directing them towards
What if the first stage of psychosexual development?
What could go wrong at thise stage?
Oral/ 0-1 years/ mouth/ infants explore the world using their mouths/ over or under breastfeeding
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict in stage 1?
pleasures gained from oral activities/ such as sucking, biting or earing e.g chewing pens
What if the second stage of psychosexual development?
What could go wrong at thise stage?
Anal/ anus/ pleasure gained from defecation/ when ahcild is leanring to control impulses/
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict in stage 2?
anal retentive- Obsesive behaviour/ neatness and passive aggression/ anal explsuive- sloppiness
What if the third stage of psychosexual development?
What could go wrong at thise stage?
Gentials/ children become aware of gender differences/ Oedipus/ electra complex forms
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict in stage 3?
Men- feelings of anxiety and guilt about sex/ women- feelings of envy
What is humanism?
A psychological approach that incorporates holism
What is holism?
Seeing the whole person rather than certain aspects
Which approach does the humanistic approach reject?
The behavioural approach of the road and the determination view because it be,dived we have free will.
What is the psychological definition of free will?
Free will is the idea that we are able to have some choice in how we act and assumes that we are free to choose our behavior, in other words we are self determined.
Who are the main psychologists who developed the humanistic approach?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow- they emphasise the personal worth of the individual and the importance of human value
What is the main focus of the humanistic approach?
On the individual to strive towards personal growth and fulfilment
What does the humanistic approach assume?
Humans are different to humans due to their ability to consciously make a decision/ hu,and are good and strive to try to achieve self actualisation
Who created the hierarchy of needs?
Maslow
How does Maslow believe we can reach self actualisation?
We must have met our physiological, safety, love and esteem needs, we cannot go up the hierarchy until we have abcieved our basic needs
What approach would a humanistic counsellor take?
They have empathy, congruence and unconditional positive regard to the patient/ they let the patient determine the focus of the patient
What is congruence?
The representation of your potential/ the closer the ideal and the self are to eachother the greater the congruence
What is Incongurnece?
Difference between self and ideal self
What are conditions of worth and how do they relate to the humanistic approach?
Respect for yourself/ otherwise it will hinder your progress of love and acceptance/ self actualisation
What does focus on the self mean?
Understanding and knowing yourself/ how people see us, we need positive regard from other people
Why could the humanistic approach be seen as unrealistic?
It is overly idealised view of human nature/ it is human nature/ oversimplified/ ignores situational forces/ not everyone is inheritly good
Why could it be a weakness that the humanistic approach purely a free will approach?
It ignores any biological factors that could cause behaviour to be deterministic/ twin studies have found that disorders could be inherited- SERT gene
How is the humanistic approach unscientific?
It rejects scientific methods and objectivity/ empirical evidence is difficult to obtain/ self actualisation is an abstract concept so is subjective
