APPROACHES

Question 1

Behaviourist approach assumptions

Answer 1

• Everyone’s mind is born with a blank slate - tabula rosa
• Psychology is a science so behaviour must be measured in highly controlled environments to establish cause and effect
• Behaviourism is primarily connected with observable behaviour which can be objectively and scientifically measured
• Behaviour is the result of stimulus - response
• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and animals
• All behaviour is learnt from the environment

Question 2

Classical conditioning

Answer 2

Classical conditioning was discovered by Pavlov while he was studying salivation in dogs. The hungry dogs would produce an unconditioned response to the unconditioned stimulus of food. This was paired with the neutral stimulus of a bell. Eventually an association was formed and the dog was able to salivate to only the sound of the bell which is a conditioned response.

Question 3

Theoretical and computer models

Answer 3

Theoretical and computer models are used to help understand internal mental processes

Theoretical models
- Theoretical models are abstract
- Theoretical models are diagrammatic representations
- Theoretical models are based on the way computers function
- The information processing approach suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. These include input, storage and retrieval as in the multi-store model.

Computer models
- Computer models are used for concrete things
- Computer models are software simulations of internal processes
- A computer model would involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. If they do then we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind.
- For example AI (artificial intelligence)

Question 4

Cognitive approach positive evaluation

Answer 4

• One strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective , scientific methods. Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data. This means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis.
• Another strength of the cognitive approach is that it has practical application. Cognitive psychology has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. For example the development of AI and ‘thinking machines’ (robots.) Cognitive principles have been applied to the treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony.

Question 5

Cognitive approach negative evaluation

Answer 5

• As the cognitive approach relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract or theoretical in nature.
• Similarly, research studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli (such as tests of memory involving word lists) that may not represent everyday experience. Therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
• The computer analogy has been criticised. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our ability to process information. For instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses. This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.

Question 6

Biological approach positive evaluations

Answer 6

One strength of the biological approach is that it has real world application. For example, the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increases serotonin levels. Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms. This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their condition and live their lives in the community, rather than remain in the hospital.

Another strength of the biological approach is that it uses scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes us use a range of precise and highly objective methods. These include scanning techniques , such as fMRI’s and EEGs. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means that much of the biological process is based on reliable and objective data.

Question 7

Biological approach negative evaluations

Answer 7

Although antidepressant drugs are successful for many patients, they do not work for everyone. For instance in a recent study, Cintrani compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researcher concluded that the effect of antidepressants, in general, were mainly modest. This challenges the value of the biological approach because it suggests that the brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases, for example depression.

One limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist. The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control over. However, we have already seen that the way a phenotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even monozygous identical twins who share 100% of the same DNA look and think the same. This suggests that the biological view is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.

A purely genetic environment becomes problematic when we consider things such as crime. A violent criminal for instance could excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a ‘crime gene.’

Question 8

Behaviourist approach positive evaluations

Answer 8

One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research. Behaviourists focus on the research of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus- response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed allowing for cause and effect to be established. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.

Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in prisons where prisoners get rewarded for good behaviour with things such as more tv time. This positive reinforcement increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.

Question 9

Behaviourist approach negative evaluations

Answer 9

However, in reducing all behaviour to simple stimulus-response units and by only focusing on observable behaviour, behaviourism has oversimplified the learning process, ignoring other important influences on learning e.g mental processes. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone and that private mental processes are also essential.

One weakness of the approach is the reliance on animal and human relationships. Some psychologists claim that Skinner’s reliance on rats and pigeons means that we are unable to draw conclusions in relation to human behaviour. These psychologists argue that humans have free will and that our behaviour is simply not determined by our past conditioning history. This matters because psychologists may be unable to generalise the findings from animals to humans and because behaviourism is an extreme, deterministic view that ignores the influence of conscious decision making.

Many have questioned the ethics of behaviourists’ animal experiments. The animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions for long periods of time and deliberately kept below their normal weight so that they were always hungry. At that time there were no ethical guidelines protecting animals but it would be unlikely that Skinner’s or Pavlov’s research would have been passed if judged by modern standards.

Question 10

Origins of psychology timeline

Answer 10

1879- Wilhem Wundt opens the first experimental lab and psychology emerges as a distinct discipline. He studied the structure of the mind, by breaking down behaviours into basic elements.

1900- Sigmund Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind and the psychodynamic approach is established.

1913- JB Watson rejects the vagueness of introspection instead focusing on how we are a product of our learning, experience and environment. Thus, the behaviourist approach was established.

1950- Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow reject the ideas favoured by behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach. Humanistic psychologists emphasise the importance of self-determination and free will.

1960- With the introduction of the computer, psychologists applied the analogy of the workings of a computer to the human mind. Cognitive psychology studied the working of the internal mind in a more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations.

1960- Around the time of the cognitive revolution, Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory. This provided a bridge between behaviourism and cognitive psychology.

1980 onwards- The biological approach begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology. Advances in technology have lead to increased understanding of the brain and biological processes.

Eve of the 21st century- Cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together the cognitive and biological approaches.

Question 11

Social learning theory positive evaluation

Answer 11

A strength of SLT is it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in explaining behaviour. Neither classical or operant conditioning from behaviourism offer a complete explanation of learning on their own. Humans and animals watch others to gain an idea of how a behaviour is performed, store this information and use it to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. Consequently, SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning by recognising mediational processes.

However, as this was highly controlled experiment, Bandura or other psychologists could repeat it under the same conditions to check for consistency. This makes the Bobo doll experiment a reliable one.

Question 12

Social learning theory negative evaluation

Answer 12

Social learning theory has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological influences on behaviour. Recent research suggests the observational learning, of the kind Bandura was talking about, may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allows us to empathise with and imitate other people. This suggests that biological factors may have been underestimated in the social learning theory.

The methodology used in the research to support SLT has been criticised. Bandura made extensive use of the experimental laboratory method, which is artificial and strictly controlled. As a result, there is the possibility of demand characteristics occurring whereby the children pick up on cues in the environment, guess the aim of the experiment and adjust their behaviour accordingly, lowering the internal validity of the study. Therefore, the participants may have been acting in an aggressive way towards the bobo doll because that is what they thought was expected of them rather than it being a genuine and new learned behaviour.

Question 13

Biological approach assumptions

Answer 13

• Behaviour can be inherited
• Brain physiology and biochemical imbalances can affect our behaviour.

Question 14

Psychodynamic approach assumptions

Answer 14

• Behaviour is determined by psychological factors, rather than biological or environmental
• People are born with basic instincts, needs and desires
• Behaviour is controlled by the unconscious mind
• It emphasises inner conflicts of the mind, unconscious motives and desires and early childhood experiences can shape your personality

Question 15

Levels of consciousness: The iceberg analogy

Answer 15

At the top of the iceberg is the conscious mind. The conscious mind is all of the mental processes of which we are aware. For example: thoughts and perceptions.

In the middle of the iceberg is the preconscious mind. The preconscious mind when we are not aware of this, but we can recall some information with the right cue. Information can be n the ‘tip of the tongue.’ For example: memories and stored knowledge.

At the bottom of the iceberg is the unconscious mind. This contains our biologically based instincts. We can only access this information through hypnosis, or sometimes through are dreams. Threatening and disturbing memories from childhood that have been repressed (forgotten) are stored here and can cause problems if not retrieved.

Question 16

Accessing the unconscious mind

Answer 16

Rorschach Inkblot test
Looking at images with ink splatters and trying to decipher them

‘Freudian slips’ - slips of the tongue
Slips of the tongue aren’t accidents - they are manifestations of our unconscious mind. Freud called these parapraxes.

Dream analysis
The dreamer recalls their dream to their therapist. What the dreamer remembers is referred to as the manifestation content.

Question 17

The structure of personality

Answer 17

Id
- Primitive part of personality
- Works on the pleasure principle - the id gets what it wants regardless of consequences
- A mass of unconscious drives and instincts
- Only the id is present from birth
- For example babies are all about seeking pleasure and getting what they want immediately through crying until fed
- Throughout life the id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs

Superego
- Present from about 5 years
- Works on the morality principle : a sense of right and wrong
- Forms an ideal self; how we ought to be
- Developed in the phallic stage of sexual development
- Internalisation of societal rules and laws. Represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent.
- It will punish us with feelings of guilt if we do not live up to it

Ego
- Present from around 2 years
- Works on the reality principle
- This balances the unrealistic wishes of the id and superego and manages the conflict, it acts as a mediator
- For example it delays gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands. For example, waiting until lunch to eat
- It does this using a series of defence mechanisms

Question 18

How could an imbalance in the psyche cause abnormalities?

Answer 18

Dominant id:
- Impulsive behaviour and lack of regard for consequences - drug taking, violence and crime.
- Can also lead to high levels of aggression.
- Cannot cope with stress, selfishness and childness.

Dominant superego:
- Anxiety about not being ‘good enough’ and fearing not being perfect.
- Obsessive attention to detail and obsessive morality, extremely self-judgemental.
- Can lead to OCD and panic attacks

Question 19

Why do we need defence mechanisms?

Answer 19

• The ego has a difficult job balancing the conflicting demands of our desires, the constraints of reality and our own moral standards
• The conflict can explain the experience of being pulled in different directions when making decisions - this creates anxiety, which is unpleasant and most wanted to avoid
• If the ego is faced with a situation they are unable to deal with rationally, their defence mechanisms are triggered
• These are unconscious strategies that work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced
• By using defence mechanisms, the individual stops themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant feelings associated with the traumatic situation, and thus the ego prevents us from being overwhelmed by a temporary threat or trauma

Question 20

What are the different types of defence mechanisms?

Answer 20

Repression
- Forcing a distressing or threatening memory out of your conscious mind
- For example an individual forgetting the trauma of their favourite pet dying

Denial
- Failing or refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
- For example continuing to turn up to work even though you have been sacked

Displacement
- Transferring feelings from the true object of anxiety onto a substitute target/ object
- For example slamming the door after an argument with your boyfriend

Question 21

What happens if you overuse defence mechanisms?

Answer 21

Everyone uses them at times but excessive use can result in the ego becoming increasingly detached from reality and can cause mental disorders.

Psychoanalysis involves understanding defences and unconscious issues driving mental distress.

Question 22

Evaluation of defence mechanisms

Answer 22

• It has an intuitive appeal - most people can appreciate the idea of denial, repression and displacement
• Use of case studies to support their use may not be generalisable to the target population
• Lack of testability because their use can only be inferred so there’s a lack of evidence

Question 23

What are the 5 psychosexual stages of development?

Answer 23

• Oral
• Anal
• Phallic
• Latency
• Genital

Question 24

Oral stage

Answer 24

Erogenous zone: mouth

Details
- 0-1 years
- Libido is on the mouth
- Id is dominant
- Successful resolution: a person can enjoy food and drink and healthily form relationships

Consequences of fixation at this stage
- Can create an oral character: thumb-sucking, biting nails or smoking. This person can be a compulsive talker, greedy and dependent on others.

Question 25

Anal stage

Answer 25

Erogenous zone: anus

Details
- 1-3 years
- Focus on expelling and withholding faeces
- Successful resolution: The ability to deal with authority and to have a balance of being orderly and disorganised

Consequences of fixation at this stage
- Anal retentive character: excessively early or harsh potty training can lead to stubbornness, perfectionism, obsessively tidy, punctual and submissive towards others
- Anal expulsive character: over indulgence or late potty training can lead to an adult who is messy, disorganised or extremely rebellious

Question 26

Phallic stage

Answer 26

Erogenous zone: genitals

Details
- 4-6 years
- Important stage for gender identity and development of morals
- It is when the oedipus and electra complex’s happen
- Successful resolution: identification of the same-sex parent

Consequences of fixation at this stage
- Phallic character: who is reckless, resolute, self-assured and narcissistic - excessively vain and proud.
- It can lead to an adult who is confused about their gender identity and possibly even homosexual

Question 27

Latency stage

Answer 27

Erogenous zone: N/A

Details
- 7-10 years
- Not much happens here in terms of psychosexual development. Child represses sexual desires and channels energy into play.

Consequences of fixation at this stage
- People don’t tend to fixate here

Question 28

Genital stage

Answer 28

Erogenous zone: genitals

Details
- 11+ years (puberty and beyond)
- Comes with onset puberty
- Successful resolution: leads to the genital character who is the ideal, well-adjusted, mature adult who is able to love and be loved. Works hard and contributes to society.

Consequences of fixation at this stage
- Fixation or un-resolution at this stage can lead to unsatisfactory relationships or a failure to relationships

Question 29

Psychodynamic approach evaluation limitations

Answer 29

One weakness of the approach is that it is deterministic, as it suggests that humans have no free will as behaviour is controlled by unconscious conflicts. This is a weakness because it suggests we do not have conscious choice over our actions and so denies us responsibility for our behaviour. Freud believed that there is no such thing as an accident because even simple slips of the tongue are driven by unconscious forces and have symbolic meaning. For example, crime is said to be caused by a persons’ dysfunctional superego and therefore they cannot be held responsible for their actions as they didn’t choose to act that way so it is unfair to punish them.

One major limitation of the approach is that it has many aspects that are considered unfalsifiable (untestable). For example, the unconscious mind is difficult to test as anything not remembered by participants can be argued to just be the unconscious. This is an issue because there is a lack of empirical (experimental) evidence to support the approach so it is unscientific. Freud heavily relied on case study evidence rather than experimental evidence adding further evidence that the approach is unscientific

Question 30

Psychodynamic approach positive evaluation

Answer 30

One strength is that it takes on an interactionist position on the nurture vs nature debate. For example the approach argues that personality is both influenced by both innate factors like the id (nature) and development through the psychosexual stages (nurture). This is a strength because it is seen as a more complex and complete explanation of behaviour to acknowledge the interaction of these two factors together. Furthermore, the approach has had a huge influence on later theorists and its ideas have been used to explain a wide range of behaviours from crime to gender to attachment.

A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has practical applications. For example, the psychodynamic approach has led to therapies like psychoanalysis. This is a strength because the therapy can benefit those suffering from psychological ill-health and allow them to be free from their mental disorders. For example, Freud showed this can be done through examining a person’s past and uncovering their hidden unconscious thoughts that are causing their mental illness. As he did help Dora to overcome hysteria.

Question 31

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 31

Physiological: our most basic needs like oxygen, food, water, sex, sleep and excretion

Safety: security and safety of body, employment, home, health, belongings and resources

Love/ belonging: close friendships, giving trust and love to others, receiving love from others, belonging to a family and having sexual intimacy

Esteem: being respected and respecting yourself, a sense of achievement and confidence

Self actualisation: reaching your fullest potential in life. Accepting yourself fully without judgement, and accepting others without judgement or bias. Leading a moral, spontaneous, creative life, making a positive contribution to the world.

His hierarchy emphasises the need for personal growth and helps us to achieve our goals through what we need to focus on at each point in our lives. Maslow believed that the more basic the need is, the harder it is to ignore and the more powerfully it is felt.

Question 32

Humanist approach positive evaluations

Answer 32

A strength of the humanist approach is that it has real life applications. Contemporary therapists use Roger’s ideas of unconditional positive regard and help clients to work towards self-awareness. It was the purpose of Rogerian therapy to close the gap of incongruence between self-concept and the ideal self, and thus allow an individual to recognise both their psychological limits and their strengths and achieve a realistic balance between them. Rogers believed that by taking a client centred approach to counselling an individual would be helped to make positive steps towards resolving their issues, learn a deeper understanding of themselves and ultimately achieve self-actualisation. The role of the therapist is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition. When the client feels sufficiently supported. their conditions of worth affecting their self-concept will dissipate enabling them to move towards their ideal self and how they want to behave, rather than how they feel that they should. This means it is a useful theory with real-life applications.

A strength of the humanistic approach is that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can be applied more broadly to economic development of countries, as well as personal development of individuals. Hagerty found that in the early stages of economic development, priority is on physiological and safety needs, such as food and reduction in crime rates. Once these basic needs have been met, countries then focus on esteem needs (e.g women’s rights) and self-actualisation (e.g access to education). This evidence from 88 countries over a 34 year old period supports a hierarchy of needs in societies as well as individuals, adding strength to the explanation.

There is research evidence to support Carl Rogers’ view that people who experience conditional positive regard display more ‘false self’ behaviour. For example, Harter found that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain their parents approval frequently dislike themselves. They found that adolescents that create a false self, pretending to be the sort of person their parents love, are also more likely to experience depression. This supports ‘conditions of worth’ the idea that unconditional positive regard from parents is essential for developing self worth.

However, cultural differences exist as shown from cross-cultural studies. For example, Nevis found that in China belonging took priority over physiological needs and self-actualisation related to contributions to the community rather than individual development. Many studies confirm that people in Western cultures focus more on personal identity whereas collectivists define self-concept in terms of social relationships. Maslow acknowledged that needs may appear in a different order or absent altogether. This more flexible hierarchy fits the evidence better.

Question 33

Humanist approach negative evaluations

Answer 33

However, a limitation of the humanistic approach is that counselling cannot be tested experimentally due to rigorous requirements of the experimental method. Rogers was an advocate of non-experimental research methods because he thought that human behaviour extended beyond the principles of science because we have free will. Studies have shown that personal growth as a result of humanistic counselling, but these do not show that counselling caused the changes. It is therefore difficult to evaluate the therapies or theories scientifically.

However, as they only used teenagers from an individualistic country, the results can only be applied to that particular culture and not a collectivist one.