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ALevel Psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

A

Wilhelm Wundt was the first person viewed as a psychologist. He viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience and studied this view using introspection

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2
Q

What is Introspection?

A

Introspection is a way of studying mental processes. It is a systematic analysis of our own conscious experience of a stimulus, i.e. it enables us to observe our inner world

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3
Q

What did Wundt argue about memory and perception?

A

Wundt argued that with training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspection

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4
Q

What is Structuralism?

A

Studying the structure of the mind by breaking down behaviors into their basic element

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5
Q

What is a Strength of Wundt?

A

Controlled methods - all the introspections were recorded under strictly controlled stimulus, and this allowed procedures to be replicated every time, increasing reliability

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6
Q

What is a Weakness of Wundt?

A

No cause and effect established, and the data was subjective in that it varied from person to person. Results in Introspection were not reliably reproducible by other researchers in other laboratories, and the participant’s reports were unobservable

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7
Q

What is Empiricism?

A

Empiricism is the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience i.e. observation and experience alone

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8
Q

What is considered to be a scientific method?

A

The use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and reliable

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9
Q

What are the 2 assumptions of the Empiricism approach?

A

1) All behavior is caused (determined)
2) If behavior is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions.
(the techniques to explore these 2 are known as scientific methods)

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10
Q

What is Determinism?

A

The view that free will is an illusion, and that our behavior is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control.

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11
Q

What is a Strength of Empiricism?

A

It uses scientific methods, this is a strength because it relies on a belief in determinism, cause and effect can be established using methods that are empirical and replicable

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12
Q

What is a Weakness of Empiricism?

A

Not all psychologists share the view that all human behavior can be explored by the use of scientific methods. This means that predictions become impossible and the methods are inappropriate

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13
Q

What is a Stimulus?

A

Anything, internal or external, that brings about a response

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14
Q

What is a Response?

A

Any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

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15
Q

What is a Neutral Stimulus (NS)?

A

A stimulus that does not naturally produce a response

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16
Q

What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)?

A

A stimulus that produces a reflex response

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17
Q

What is an Unconditioned Response (UCR)?

A

An innate, reflex response

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18
Q

What is a Conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A

The stimulus which produces the learned response after an association had taken place

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19
Q

What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?

A

A learned response

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20
Q

What is Classical Conditioning?

A

Learning by Association. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together (an Neutral Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus)

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21
Q

What is an assumption of the Behaviorist approach?

A

All behavior is learnt from the environment

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22
Q

What is Behaviorism about?

A

Behaviorism is primarily related with observable behavior, as it is objective and scientifically measured

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23
Q

How did Pavlov discover the process of Classical Conditioning?

A

Through his conduction on a study of the salivation response in dogs

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24
Q

What was the Natural Stimulus in Pavlov’s study?

A

The Bell

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25
Q

What was the Unconditioned Stimulus in Pavlov’s study?

A

The Food

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26
Q

What was the Unconditioned Response in Pavlov’s study?

A

The Salivation

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27
Q

What was the Conditioned Stimulus in Pavlov’s study?

A

Salivation to the Bell after the association formed between the bell and the food (Bell)

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28
Q

What was the Conditioned Response in Pavlov’s study?

A

Salivation to the Bell after the association formed between the bell and the food (Salivation)

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29
Q

What is Operant Conditioning?

A

The believe that all behavior is learnt as a result of consequences in our environment.
This involves learning through the consequences (positive/negative) of behavioral responses.

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30
Q

Who suggested the idea of Operant Conditioning?

A

B.F. Skinner

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31
Q

What is a Reinforcement?

A

A consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

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32
Q

What is a Punishment?

A

A consequence of behavior that decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

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33
Q

What is Positive Reinforcement?

A

You add a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

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34
Q

What is Negative Reinforcement?

A

You remove an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior.

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35
Q

What is Positive Punishment?

A

You add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.

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36
Q

What is Negative Punishment?

A

You remove an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.

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37
Q

What is Skinner’s box?

A

A box that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button.

When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver:
1) A positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food).
2) A punishment (such as an electric shock).

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38
Q

What is a Strength of Pavlov’s and Skinner’s study?

A

1) Real-life applications (e.g. behavior therapies + increased our understanding of the causes of phobias and attachment)
2) Objective measurement, which can be replicated and peer-reviewed
3) Clear predictions that can be can be scientifically tested

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39
Q

What is a Weakness of Pavlov’s and Skinner’s study?

A

1) Reductionist – ignores biology
2) Deterministic (little free will)
3) Humanism – can’t compare animals
4) The experiments have low ecological validity

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40
Q

What does Vicarious Reinforcement state?

A

Learning takes place through watching others receive a reward or consequence for a behavior

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41
Q

Who proposed the Social Learning Theory (SLT)?

A

Bandura

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42
Q

What is Social Learning Theory (SLT)?

A

SLT takes the principles of behaviorism, and it states that people (particularly children) learn via observation of a role model.

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43
Q

What is Attention?

A

Noticing the behavior, being aware of it

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44
Q

What is Retention?

A

Remembering the behavior and the mechanisms involved in it

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45
Q

What is Reproduction?

A

Imitating the behavior, reproducing key features of it

46
Q

What is Motivation?

A

The desire to repeat the behavior, or the need to be rewarded for the behavior

47
Q

What 4 Mediational Processes can’t SLT be produced without?

A

A- Attention
R- Retention
R- Reproduction
M- Motivation

48
Q

How did Bandura prove his SLT approach?

A

Bandura’s (1961) Bobo Doll Study

49
Q

What is Identification?

A

An individual is influenced by a person’s behavior because they are similar

50
Q

What is Observational Learning?

A

Observational Learning states that behavior is learnt through watching and imitating other’s behavior

51
Q

What is Imitation?

A

A person observes the behavior a role model produces and copies it

52
Q

What is a Strength of the SLT?

A

SLT research tends to use standardized procedures within controlled lab conditions which can be replicated to check for reliability

53
Q

What is a Weakness of the SLT?

A

SLT is Reductionist, as it does not account for innate and biological factors such as the influence of genes, hormones, brain structures on behavior which limits its scope

54
Q

What is Inference?

A

Inference is an assumption made from data collected

55
Q

What is a Schema?

A

A cognitive (mental) framework of people, places and things, that help us to organize and interpret information in the brain

56
Q

What is an assumption of the Cognitive approach?

A

Behavior is influenced by thoughts that can be both conscious and unconscious, these internal mental processes mediate between the stimulus and response. These internal processes can and should be studied scientifically and objectively

57
Q

What is a reason why schemas are good?

A

They help us to process lots of information quickly which is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that stops us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

58
Q

What is a reason why schemas are bad?

A

They can distort our interpretations of sensory information (because we are expected to see, hear, etc. something in particular) leading to perceptual errors

59
Q

What is a Computer Model?

A

When computer analogies are used as a representation of human cognition, suggesting that there is a similarity in the way information is processed.

60
Q

What is a Model?

A

A (theoretical) model is a simplified and usually pictorial representation of a particular mental process. They often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect

61
Q

What would be the “Central Processing Unit” if the brain processes information like a computer?

A

The Brain

62
Q

What would be the “Coding” if the brain processes information like a computer?

A

Turning information into a useful format

63
Q

What would be the “Input” if the brain processes information like a computer

A

When information is coded as neutral connections in the brain ad processed i.e. using schema

64
Q

What would be the “Stores” if the brain processes information like a computer

A

Holding different chunks of information

65
Q

What would be the “Output” if the brain processes information like a compute

A

Observable behavior

66
Q

What is Cognitive Neuroscience?

A

The scientific study of the brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive processes

67
Q

What are applications of Cognitive Neuroscience?

A

Usage of scanning/imaging techniques (fMRIs, EEGs), or the usage of computer simulations/ computational modelling to test theories or hypotheses

68
Q

What is a Strength of the Cognitive Approach?

A

1) The Cognitive Approach emphasizes the scientific approach to studying psychology, such as scanners like EEGs or fMRIs, this is useful because psychologists can produce reliable and objective data (+replicable)

2) The Cognitive Approach is also applied in many areas of life, such as treatments like CBT have been created and are highly successful in treating disorders like depression. This is helpful because it helped people in the real world, this means it has high ecological and internal validity

69
Q

What is an assumption of the cognitive approach?

A

It emphasizes the importance of physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance, hormones, neurochemistry and the nervous system, impacting our behaviour. (the mind and the brain are the same thing (unlike cognitive approach)

70
Q

What is a Genotype?

A

An individual’s genetic makeup (genes they have). This means genetically identical people have the same predisposition to develop a characteristic (e.g. to be overweight) from their genes, unless another factor(s) intervenes.

71
Q

What is a Phenotype?

A

The observable traits/characteristics (e.g. weight someone achieves) shown by the individual, these characteristics are due to the combined effects of genes and environment.

72
Q

What is Evolution?

A

When the genetic make-up of a particular population changes over successive generations. Individuals within a species vary in terms of their physical characteristics and behaviour. As least some of the variation is inherited ; this therefore is biological

73
Q

What is Sexual Selection?

A

The idea that physical characteristics or behaviours that make an individual more attractive and so increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations

74
Q

What are the 2 methods that are used to study Behaviour in the Biological Approach?

A

Comparative Method & Twin Studies

75
Q

What is the Comparative Method in the Biological Approach?

A

This is where animals are studied and conclusions are generalised to humans

76
Q

What are Twin Studied in the Biological Approach?

A

This is where both twins are studied to determine whether they share characteristics. They allow us to access whether a characteristic is genetic or environmental

77
Q

What are Strengths of the Biological Approach?

A

1) The Biological Approach uses a range of highly precise and scientific methods in order to investigate the biological bases of behaviour (e.g. fMRIs, twin studies, lab experiments) This means that the approach is based on reliable and objective data

2) The Biological Approach creates clear predictions that has led to the significant applications of the approach in the real world. These support the external validity of the approach as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours/ help support treatment (real-world application)

78
Q

What are Weaknesses of the Biological Approach

A

1) The Biological Approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes that we have no control over. This has implications for our legal system and wider society as criminals may not take responsibility for the crimes they’ve committed, or there might be discrimination against people with the genetic predisposition to develop certain genes. (ethical implications)

2) Twin Studies assume that MZ and DZ twins share the the same environments, however the environment may be more similar for MZ compared to DZ twins (MZ twins tend to be treated more similarly by their parents/other people than DZ twins. Therefore biological explanations are are unlikely to be complete explanations of behaviour as other factors are likely to contribute to mental disorders

79
Q

What are the 3 main assumptions of the Psychodynamic Approach?

A

1) The Unconscious Mind is the driving force behind our behaviour, therefore if we have a problem with behaviour, we need to access the unconscious to sort it out

2) Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour, this means that we go through a series of stages in development of our behaviour and personality

3) Early childhood experiences is believed to be the key to making us the person we are. Most of our psychological development is argued to be developed by age 6

80
Q

What is Freud’s theory on the Role of the Unconscious?

A

Freud’s theory argues that part of the mind is inaccessible to conscious thought, he refers to this as the unconscious mind. The tripartite structure (or iceberg) represents Freud’s views on the mind and personality:

1) Conscious mind- the part of the mind we are aware of

2) Preconscious mind - the thoughts that occur just out of the conscious awareness

3) Unconscious mind - the thoughts that occur without any conscious awareness

81
Q

What is a Defence Mechanism?

A

The constant disagreements between the ID, the Ego and the Superego can lead to a lot of anxiety, so the mind develops various methods of defending itself

82
Q

What are the 3 Defence Mechanisms?

A

Repression, Denial and Displacement

83
Q

What is Repression?

A

Forcing distressing memories out of the conscious mind. the defence mechanism is argued to be the most important

(e.g. A child, who faced abuse by a parent, later has no memory of the events but has trouble forming relationships)

84
Q

What is Denial?

A

Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality, by blocking events frim your current consciousness

(e.g. a smoker refusing to admit that smoking is bad for your health)

85
Q

What is Displacement?

A

The redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target, this could be a person/thing that symbolizes the actual target

(e.g. shouting at your sister because your teacher told you off today for no reason)

86
Q

What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages?

A

Oral phase, Anal phase, Phallic phase, Latent phase, Genital phase

87
Q

What are the age, divisions and effect if the Oral Phase isn’t completed?

A

0-18 months
Passive and Aggressive divisions
Children enjoys sucking and tasting as a child is being breastfed. (Successful completion = weaning (eating independently))
X= Smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical

88
Q

What are the age, divisions and effect if the Anal Phase isn’t completed?

A

18 months -3 years
Expulsive and Retentive
Defecation is main sources of pleasure. Successful completion = potty training and development of ego (ID develops at 18 months)
X= Retentive - perfectionist/obsessive OR Expulsive - thoughtless/messy

89
Q

What are the age, divisions and effect if the Phallic Phase isn’t completed?

A

3-6 years
Oedipus (boys) and Electra (girls)
Pleasure is from the genital area- Oedipus and Electra complex- desiring the opposite sex parent as they want to be with them. Girls experience penis envy
X= Narcissistic, reckless, potentially homosexual

90
Q

What are the age, divisions and effect if the Latent Phase isn’t completed?

A

6-11 years
(no divisions)
Earlier conflicts are repressed, sexual urges are repressed and redirected (sublimated) into sports and other hobbies (superego developed)
X= Libido is dormant - may be due to repression

91
Q

What are the age, divisions and effect if the Genital Phase isn’t completed?

A

12 years
(no divisions)
Focuses on genitals again, but not to the same extent as the phallic stage, task is to develop healthy adult relationships
X= Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

92
Q

What is a Strength of the Psychodynamic Approach?

A

The approach has had a huge influence on psychology and western contemporary thought. It remained a dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a wife range of phenomena including personality development abnormal behaviour, more development and gender.
This highlights the importance of the theory in developing psychology into what it is today. Therefore Freud’s contribution is significant in a way that it has bought a positive change in the way in which we view people and their behaviours

93
Q

What are Weaknesses of the Psychodynamic Approach?

A

1) Freud’s theory was based on intensive study of single individuals who were often in therapy. Although his observations were incredibly detailed and carefully recorded, it’s suggested that it is not possible to make universal claims about human nature based on studies of such small number of individuals who were deemed psychologically abnormal. So Freud’s theories should be recognised as important but the evidence he collectedmd0es not represent a diverse proportion of the population

2) Philosopher Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the criterion for falsification (unfalsifiable, it is not open to empirical testing). Many of Freud’s theories (e.g. the id, ego and superego) are said to occur at the unconscious level making them difficult, id not impossible to test (Popper accuses this approach as being a pseudoscience rather than a real science)

94
Q

What are the 4 main assumptions of the Humanistic Approach?

A

1) Every Individual is unique - we’re all different and therefore should be treated differently. We shouldn’t make generalisations. It is an idiographic approach

2) Free will - we have control over our own behaviour and therefore we can take charge of how we develop through our lives

3) People should be viewed holistically - there is no point looking at one aspect of an individual and their behaviour as we could be missing key information

4) The scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour - This approach argues that the scientific method tried to be objective and yet humans are subjective in the way we think and behave

95
Q

What is Self Actualization?

A

A person’s motivation to reach their full potential, as shown in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a person’s basic needs must be met before self-actualization can be achieved (an innate drive to achieve their full potential)

96
Q

What are the 5 stages of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A

Self Actualization > Esteem > Love/Belonging > Safety > Physiological

97
Q

What is in the Self Actualization stage?

A

Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts

98
Q

What is in the Esteem stage?

A

Self esteem, confidence, respect of others, respect by others

99
Q

What is in the Love/Belonging stage?

A

Friendship, family, intimacy

100
Q

What is in the Safety stage?

A

Security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health, property

101
Q

What is in the Physiological stage?

A

Breathing, food, water, sleep, sex, homeostasis, excretion

102
Q

What is Maslow’s assumption of how we self-actualise?

A

Believing we go through a series of stages in order to achieve self actualization

103
Q

What is Roger’s assumption of how we self-actualise?

A

Believing that our self-concept and our ideal self must match in order to achieve congruence, therefore self-actualization

104
Q

What is Congruence?

A

When our ideal self and our self-concept match

105
Q

What is Conditions of Worth?

A

Requirements that an individual feels they need to meet to be loved, these can be either real or perceived by the individual

106
Q

What are the 3 things that have to be congruent in order for us to focus on the self?

A

The Self Concept, the Ideal Self and the Real self

107
Q

What is the Self Concept?

A

The way in which you see yourself
(if someone has a low self-esteem, they will have a poor self-concept and will have a distorted view of how capable they are)

108
Q

What is the Ideal Self?

A

The self you wish to be
(it is who you are aiming to become (or you might already be there))

109
Q

What is the Real self?

A

Who you actually are
(This is difficult to demonstrate, as the subjective experience that is so important to humanistic theory means that everyone will perceive or judge a person differently)

110
Q

What is Humanist Therapy?

A

A type of therapy where people work through their problems supported by a therapist who provides unconditional positive regard to the client (patient)

111
Q

Why is the patient in Humanist Therapy called a “client” instead?

A

They’re referred as a client because both the client and therapist are equal in power and that the therapist is not the expert.

the client’s perception of what is going on is important because how they perceive themselves will have an impact on their behaviour and would explain why they are in a state of incongruence

112
Q

What is the client and therapist responsible for in Humanist Therapy?

A

The client is us responsible for changing their behaviour and they need to be active in therapy sessions and outside of them in order to drive change.
The therapists responsibility is to be warm, genuine, and understanding so that the client has someone in their life who they believe is giving them positive regard

ALevel Psychology (3 decks)

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