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Approaches 🤣 Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the seven approaches?

A
  • origins
  • biological
  • social learning theory
  • behaviourist
  • psychodynamic
  • cognitive
  • humanistic
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2
Q

what are the main points of the origins of psychology?

A
  • empiricism
  • introspection
  • scientific method
  • structuralism
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3
Q

what is empiricism (origins)?

A
  • belief that all behaviour has a cause and therefore it is possible to predict
  • all knowledge is derived from sensory experience
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4
Q

what is introspection (origins)?

A
  • a person gains knowledge about their own their own mental and emotional states
  • result of examination of observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings
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5
Q

what is the scientific method (origins)?

A
  • refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
  • formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
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5
Q

who investigated the origins of psychology?

A

Wilhem Wundt

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6
Q

what study did Wundt carry out (origins)?

A
  • aim was to study the structure of the mind, through structuralism
  • technique used was introspection
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7
Q

what is structuralism (origins)?

A
  • breaking down behaviour to basic elements
  • ie. sensation and perception
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8
Q

what did Wundt believe about the human mind (origins)?

A
  • could be studied scientifically
  • behaviour could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions (ie. reaction time, various aspects of sensation and perception, etc)
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9
Q

how did Wundt adapt his original belief about the human mind (origins)?

A
  • higher mental processes could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner
  • ie. learning, language and emotions
  • could be described in terms of general trends of behaviour among groups of people
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10
Q

what happened in Wundt’s study of perception (origins)?

A
  • participants presented with carefully controlled stimuli (ie. visual images/ auditory tones)
  • would then provide a description of inner processes they were experiencing
  • made it possible to compare different participants reports in response to same stimuli
  • establish general theories about perception and other mental processes
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11
Q

what is the emergence of psychology based on (origins)?

A
  • all behaviour is seen as being caused (determinism)
  • makes it possible to predict how people behave in certain situations (predictability)
  • called scientific method
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12
Q

how did the idea of the scientific method originate (origins)?

A
  • empiricism
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13
Q

what are the three main aspects of the scientific method (origins)?

A
  • replicable
  • objective
  • systematic
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14
Q

what does replicable mean (origins)?

A
  • repeated by others to see if the same results can obtained
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15
Q

what does objective mean (origins)?

A
  • researchers don’t let preconceived ideas/ biases influence collection of data
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16
Q

what does systematic mean (origins)?

A
  • carry out the research in an orderly way
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17
Q

how can Wundt’s methods be criticised as unreliable (origins)?

A
  • relied on ‘non observable’ responses
  • introspective ‘experimental’ results were not reliably reproducible
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18
Q

how can Wundt’s methods be criticised to his use of introspection (origins)?

A
  • not fully accurate
  • Nisbett and Wilson claim we have little knowledge of causes of behaviour
  • especially when studying implicit attitudes
  • exist out of conscious awareness so unable to self report
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19
Q

how can Wundt’s methods be supported through his use of scientific methods (origins)?

A
  • tests assumptions about scientific
  • reliance on objective/ systematic observation
  • able to establish cause through methods both empiricable and replicable
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20
Q

how can Wundt’s methods be supported through its usefulness in scientific psychology (origins)?

A
  • introspection
  • Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter used introspection to measure ‘happiness’ in teenagers
  • required them to write thoughts when they heard a beep
  • teenagers were most unhappy though if doing a challenging task they were more upbeat
  • offers us a way of understanding momentary conditions that affect happiness and thus improving quality of our lives
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21
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the social learning theory approach?

A
  • we learn through observation and imitation of others we see rewarded, as well as through conditioning
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22
Q

what is vicarious learning (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • learning through observing others
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23
Q

what are the different aspects of the social learning theory approach?

A
  • modelling
  • imitation
  • identification
  • vicarious reinforcement
  • mediational processes
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24
Q

what is modelling (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour
  • live (ie. parents) or symbolic (ie. celebrities)
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25
Q

what is imitation (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • action of using someone as a model and copying their behaviour
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26
Q

what is identification (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • is a form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour as they want to be associated with a particular group or person
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27
Q

what is vicarious reinforcement (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour
  • but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour
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28
Q

what are mediational processes (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • refer to internal mental process that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to it
  • ‘mediate ability to immitate’
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29
Q

what are the four mediational processes (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • attention and retention (learning)
  • motor reproduction and motivation (performance)
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30
Q

what key study investigates the social learning theory?

A

Bandura’s bobo doll study

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31
Q

what was the procedure of Bandura’s bobo doll study (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • children observed aggressive or non aggressive adult models and were tested on their ability to imitate
  • half of the children observed adults models acting aggressively towards a life sized bobo doll and half exposed to the non aggressive model
  • aggressive model displayed distinct acts ie. striking the doll with a mallet
  • children were taking to a room with a bobo doll
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32
Q

what were the findings of Bandura’s bobo doll study (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • those who observed aggressive model reproduced the physically aggressive acts and vice versa
  • about 1/3 of children who observed ggressive verbal responses repeated these compared to none of the non aggressive group
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33
Q

what happened in Bandura’s follow up study (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • found children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high level of aggression in their own play
  • showed vicarious reinforcement
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34
Q

how can the social learning theory approach be supported through real world application?

A
  • Akers found the probability of engaging in criminal behaviour increases when exposed to models who have engaged in criminal behaviour
  • expectations of positive consequences for own criminal behaviour
  • Ulrich found the strongest cause of violence in adolescence was association with delinquent peers, where violence was modelled and rewarded
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35
Q

how can the social learning theory be criticised in terms of causality?

A
  • problems of establishing causality
  • Siegel and McCormick suggest young people who possess deviant attitudes and values (ie. low self control) would seek out peers with similar attitudes/ behaviours as they are more fun to be with
  • cause of delinquency therefore may not be exposure to deviant role models but the possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with peers
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36
Q

how can the social learning theory be criticised in terms of complexity?

A
  • problems of complexity
  • explaining the development of gender role behaviour in social learning emphasises importance of gender specific modelling
  • however a child is exposed to many different influences, all interacting in complex ways
  • including genetic predispositions, media portrayals, locus of control, etc
  • difficult to show one thing (social learning) as the main causal influence on behaviour
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37
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the cognitive approach?

A
  • behaviour is the result of internal mental processes that operate together
  • including attention and thinking
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38
Q

what are the three influences on behaviour according to the cognitive approach?

A
  • use of theoretic and computer models
  • schemas
  • emergence of cognitive neuroscience
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39
Q

how do schemas affect behaviour (cognitive approach)?

A
  • framework in the brain
  • helps organise and interpret information
  • allows us to take shortcuts through the mass of information we take in daily
  • can exclude information that is not relevant
  • helps us fill in the gaps
  • leads to formation of stereotypes
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40
Q

what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience (cognitive approach)?

A
  • neuroscientists are able to study the living brain, giving them detailed information about brain structures involved with mental processing
  • includes non invasive neuroimaging techniques (ie. fMRI and PET scans)
  • help us to understand how the brain supports different cognitive emotions and activities by showing us what parts of it become active
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41
Q

what study can be used to explain emergence of cognitive neuroscience (cognitive approach)?

A
  • Burnett et al
  • found that when people feel guilty, several regions are active
  • including medial prefrontal cortex (social emotions)
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42
Q

how can the use of theoretical and computer models explain behaviour (cognitive approach)?

A
  • information is based on research and shows stages of mental processes
  • allows for testing and updating (ie. Baddleys WMM - theoretical)
  • computer models act as analogies for the way sensory information is encoded
  • led to computer analogies
  • ie. hard drive is the long term memory, what is input to the computer determines output, same way humans encode sensory information and process it determining behaviour
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43
Q

how can the cognitive approach be supported through its applications?

A
  • social cognition in social psychology has helped psychologists to better understand how we interpret actions of others
  • psychopathology uses cognitive approach to explain how much of dysfunctional behaviour can be traced back to faulty thinking process
  • led to successful treatment using cognitive based therapy (CBT) for depression/ OCD, etc
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44
Q

how does research into the cognitive approach lack ecological validity?

A
  • little in common between cognitive psychology tasks and natural everyday experiences
  • ie. experiments in memory use artificial test materials that are relatively meaningless in everyday life, rather than being based on the way in which memory is used in everyday life (random digits vs. childhood memories)
  • unlikely we are able to generalise these findings to real life situations
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45
Q

how can the cognitive approach be supported in terms of it scientific basis?

A
  • provides psychologists with a method for collecting and evaluating evidence to reach accurate conclusions on how the mind works
  • based on far more than common sense and introspection (misleading)
  • therefore objective and not based on self reports
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46
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • behaviour, including mental disorders, arise from unconscious drives that operate in the mind
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47
Q

what are the four key aspects of the psychodynamic approach?

A
  • role of the unconscious
  • structure of the mind
  • defence mechanisms
  • psychosexual stages of development
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48
Q

what is Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • believed behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than by biological factors or environmental reinforcement
  • assumed people are born with basic instincts and needs and that behaviour is in large part controlled by the unconscious mind
  • driving force in development is expression of sexual energy (libido) which causes tension as it builds up and needs to be discharged
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49
Q

what is the role of the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • Freud believed in the existence of a part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought
  • believes most of our everyday actions are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (‘Freudian Slips’)
  • unconscious extended its influence into every part of our waking mind
  • mind uses defence mechanisms to prevent a person becoming fully aware of traumatic memories (in the unconscious) as they might cause anxiety
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50
Q

what is the metaphor Freud uses to describe the role of the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • iceberg
  • tip represents the conscious mind and is visible
  • larger part representing the unconscious mind is mostly hidden under the water
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51
Q

what is the structure of the mind/ personality (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • Freud believed the mind was divided into three structures
  • ID, ego, and superego
  • each of which demands gratification but is frequently in competition with the other parts
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52
Q

what is the ID (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • operates solely in the unconscious
  • contains libido
  • operates according to the pleasure principle so it demands immediate gratification regardless of circumstances ie. hunger
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53
Q

what is the ego (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • mediates between impulsive demands of the ID and reality of the external world (reality principle)
  • compromises between impulsive demands of the ID and moralistic demands of the superego
  • can delay gratifying the ID
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54
Q

what is the superego (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • divided into the conscious and ego (ideal)
  • conscious is the internalisation of societal rules
  • determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken
  • what a person strives towards, determined by parental standards of good behaviour
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55
Q

what are defence mechanisms (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • operate unconsciously and work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced
  • triggered by ego
  • repression, denial and displacement
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56
Q

what is repression (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • refers to unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses
  • rather than staying quietly in the unconscious, these repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour
  • ie. abused child with no recollection of this
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57
Q

what is denial (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event
  • acts as if the traumatic event had not happened
  • ie. deny having drinking problems though an alcoholic
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58
Q

what is displacement (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • redirecting of thoughts (usually hostile) in situations where the person feels unable to express them in the presence of the person they should be directed towards
  • may ‘take it out’ on a helpless victim or object
  • hostile feelings as a result of expression, though misapplied to an innocent
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59
Q

what psychosexual stages of development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages
  • most important driving forces in development is need to express sexual energy (libido)
  • Freud believed that the individual experiences tension due to the build up of this sexual energy and that pleasure come from its discharge
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60
Q

what are the five psychosexual stages of development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • oral
  • anal
  • phallic
  • latent
  • genital
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61
Q

what age does the oral stage of psychosexual development occur (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • 0-2 years
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62
Q

what age does the anal stage of psychosexual development occur (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • 2-3 years
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63
Q

what age does the phallic stage of psychosexual development occur (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • 3-6 years
64
Q

what age does the latent stage of psychosexual development occur (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • 6-12 years
65
Q

what age does the genital stage of psychosexual development occur (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • 12+ years
66
Q

what is the oral stage of psychosexual development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • mouth is focal point of sensation and is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy
  • eg. through biting
  • ID satisfied
67
Q

what is the anal stage of psychosexual development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • beginnings of ego development
  • child becomes more aware of demands of reality and the need to conform to demands of others
  • major issue here is toilet training as the child learns to control the expulsion of bodily waste
68
Q

what is the phallic stage of psychosexual development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • sexual energy is now focused on the genitals
  • major conflict is the Oedipus complex in which the male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of their father
  • as a result, boys experience castration anxiety and in an attempt to resolve this problem the child identifies with their father
69
Q

what is the latent stage of psychosexual development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • child develops their mastery of the world around them
  • conflicts and issues of previous stages are repressed with the consequence that children are unable to remember much of their early years
70
Q

what is the genital stage of psychosexual development (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • culmination of psychosexual development and the fixing of sexual energy in the in the genitals
  • eventually directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life
71
Q

if a person experiences trauma at a stage of psychosexual development, what happens (psychodynamic approach)?

A
  • leads to fixation at that stage
  • each stage must be resolved in order to pass on to the next stage
72
Q

what is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach referring to gender?

A
  • Freud’s view of women/ female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality
  • despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, he seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality
  • led psychoanalysts (ie. Karen Horney) to criticise his work particularly his views on women and their development
  • dismissing women and their sexuality is problematic as Freud’s theories are still used today
73
Q

what scientific support is there for psychodynamic approach?

A
  • critics claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable
  • however many claims have been tested and confirmed scientifically
  • Fisher and Greenberg summarised 2500 of these studies concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis’ compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology
  • support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement adds scientific credibility to psychoanalysis explanations of human behaviour
74
Q

what is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach due to its cultural basis?

A
  • Sue and Sue argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non western cultures
  • mental disorders are a result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them in the supportive and therapeutic environment
  • however they claim that many cultural groups do not value insights in the same way Western cultures do
  • in China, a person who is depressed/ anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly
  • contrasts with Western belief that open discussion/ insights are helpful in therapy
75
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the biological approach?

A
  • all behaviour has a biological cause
76
Q

what are the four aspects of the biological approach?

A
  • genes
  • biological structures
  • neurochemistry
  • evolution
77
Q

what are the influences of genes on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • genes (mechanisms of heredity)
  • genotypes and phenotypes
  • genetic basis for behaviour
78
Q

what are genes in reference to mechanisms of heredity (biological approach)?

A
  • passing characteristics through generations through genes
  • extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or environment (nature nurture debate)
79
Q

what are genotypes and phenotypes (biological approach)?

A
  • genotype is the genetic code in DNA
  • phenotype is the physical appearance inherited from the genotype
  • cannot determine the genotype from just observing phenotype
80
Q

what is the genetic basis of behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • unique for every individual so we differ in terms of personality, intelligence, abilities, etc
  • amount of variability in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences between individuals within that population (heritability)
  • more a trait is influenced by genetic factors, the greater its heritability
81
Q

what are the influences of biological structures on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • neurons and nervous system
  • the brain
82
Q

what is the influence of neurons and the nervous system on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • nervous system is comprised of several connected systems (central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system)
  • nervous system’s carry messaged from one part of the body to another using neurons
  • neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals
  • many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control including eating, breathing and sexual behaviour
83
Q

what is the influence of the brain on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • largest part is the cerebrum (85% total mass)
  • outer surface of cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex which is responsible for many of the higher order functions such as thought and language
  • cerebrum is divided into two halves (hemispheres) which are then divided further into four parts each (lobes)
  • include frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes
84
Q

what are the influences of neurochemistry on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • neurotransmitters
  • hormones
85
Q

what is the influence of neurotransmitters on behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • released when nerve impulse reaches end of a neuron
  • travels from one neuron to the next across a synapse
  • some of which trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and some stop it from doing so
  • excitatory or inhibitory
86
Q

what are excitatory neurotransmitters (biological approach)?

A
  • trigger nerve impulses in receiving neuron and stimulate the brain into action
  • ie. Dopamine is associated with our drive or motivation
87
Q

what are inhibitory neurotransmitters (biological approach)?

A
  • inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood
  • ie. Serotonin is needed to maintain a stable mood
  • Crokett et al found that when serotonin levels are low people tend to display increased aggression`
88
Q

how do hormones influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • chemicals produced by endocrine glands which together make up endocrine system
  • travel to target cells in the bloodstream and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface of/ inside cells
  • presence of a hormone causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering its activity
89
Q

what did Carre et al study concerning hormones influencing behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • studied a Canadian ice hockey team over the course a season
  • found evidence of a surge in testosterone levels whenever the team played in their home stadium, suggesting the hormone energised the players to defend their home territory
90
Q

how does evolution behaviour influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • Darwin argued that organisms become adapted to their environment through biological evolution
  • mechanism behind evolution is natural selection
  • individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of physical characteristics and in their behaviour, some of this is inherited
  • competition for resources (males, food, etc) will depend on characteristics, those who survive will go on to reproduce offspring with such behaviours leading to further reproduction
  • these will become more widespread through the population
91
Q

what did Buss study concerning evolutionary basis to behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • studied 37 cultures and found universal similarities in human mate preferences
  • women desired mates with resources whilst men desired young physically attractive women (indicates fertility)
  • suggests there is a biological basis for human behaviour
92
Q

what applications does the biological approach have (strength)?

A
  • provides clear predictions into the real world
  • research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression has led to the development of effective drug treatment
  • research into Circadian rhythms and their effect of physiological well being has led to significant improvements in the working conditions of shift workers
  • demonstrates value of adopting a biological approach to the study of human behaviour
93
Q

how can the biological approach be criticised due to being reductionist?

A
  • criticised for its belief that complex behaviour can be broken down into the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones
  • ie. many explanations of mental disorders are reductionist as genes or neurochemical imbalances are believed to be the main cause of these disorders
  • however, whilst a reductionist approach lends itself to scientific investigation, we cannot fully understand a behaviour without also taking into account other factors that influence it
  • include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors
94
Q

how can the biological approach be criticised in terms of the dangers of genetic explanations?

A
  • genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information is used
  • may lead to genetic screening of the population to identify the genetic susceptibility and subsequent discrimination against those with a predisposition for criminality
  • creates danger that genes might be used as a convenient explanation for complicated human behaviour despite the fact that these connections is far from straightforward
95
Q

what is a counterpoint arguing the strengths of genetic explanations of behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • may be positive consequences of this research
  • if individuals discover that they might have a genetic predisposition for criminality or a mental disorder this gives them the opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger the predisposition
  • or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its influence
96
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • all behaviour is learned through classical or operant conditioning
  • nothing is innate
97
Q

what is the behaviourist approach also known as?

A
  • learning approach
98
Q

what are the two main types of conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • classical
  • operant
99
Q

what is classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • reflex responses that occur involuntarily when certain stimuli are present
100
Q

what study investigated classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • Pavlov’s dogs
101
Q

what was Pavlov’s dogs (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • investigated the salivary reflex of dogs when he noticed that the animals not only salivated when food was placed in their mouths
  • also reacted to stimuli that coincided with the presentation of food, such as the presence of a food bowl or the person who fed them
102
Q

how did Pavlov show classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • food (UCS) causes a natural response of salivating (UCR)
  • bell (NS) causes no response initially
  • bell and food are paired
  • eventually, after acquisition stage, bell (CS) produces saliva response (CR)
103
Q

what are the important features of classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • timing
  • extinction
  • spontaneous recovery
  • stimulus generalisation
104
Q

why is timing important with classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • if NS cannot be used to predict the UCS conditioning does not occur
  • ie. if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great
105
Q

what is extinction with reference to classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response
  • after a few presentations of the CS without the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR
106
Q

what is spontaneous recovery in reference to classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • after extinction, if the CS and UCS are paired together again, the link is made quicker between them
107
Q

what is stimulus generalisation in reference to classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • once an animal has been conditioned they will also respond to other stimuli similar to the CS
108
Q

what is operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour can be shaped through reward and punishment
109
Q

who investigated operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • Skinner’s box
110
Q

how did Skinner investigate operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • Skinner developed a special cage in order to investigate operant conditioning in rats
  • rats move around the cage, and accidently presses a lever dispensing a food pellet
  • soon the rat presses the lever to obtain more food
  • if food pellets stop the rat abandons the lever (extinction)
111
Q

what is the most effective reinforcement schedule (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • partial (not continuous)
112
Q

what are the types of reinforcement and punishment (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • positive
  • negative
113
Q

what is reinforcement (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • strengthening of a particular behaviour making it more likely to occur
114
Q

what is positive reinforcement (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour produces a consequence that is pleasant
  • ie. reward
115
Q

what is negative reinforcement (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour removes something unpleasant
116
Q

what is positive punishment (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour produces an unpleasant consequence
117
Q

what is negative punishment (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour takes away something pleasant
118
Q

what is a strength of the behaviourist approach through its applications?

A
  • classical conditioning has been applied to therapy
  • reduction of anxiety associated with various phobias ie. systematic desensitisation
  • eliminates learned anxious response that is associated with a feared object or situation
  • makes it possible to eliminate one learned response (anxiety) by replacing it with another (relaxation) so the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the conditioned stimulus
119
Q

how can the behaviourist approach be criticised?

A
  • overly reliant on non human animals in research
  • critics claim Skinner’s reliance on rats and pigeons means his studies tell us little about human behaviour
  • unlike non human animals, human beings have free will rather than having behaviour determined by reinforcement
  • however, Skinner argued that free will is merely an illusion and what we believe are behaviours chosen through free will are actually the product of external influences that guide our behaviour
120
Q

how has the behaviourist approach been criticised in terms of appropriateness?

A
  • classical conditioning is only appropriate for some learning
  • Seligman proposed concept of preparedness to explain how different species face different challenges to survive and how some relationships between the CS and UCS are hard to establish
  • animals are prepared to learn associations that are significant in terms of survival needs (ie. smell of meat = presence of food)
  • yet they are unprepared to learn associations that aren’t significant (ie. bell = food)
121
Q

what is the fundamental belief of the humanistic approach?

A
  • we can all exercise free will over our destiny and achieve self actualisation, given appropriate conditions
  • ie. unconditional positive regard
122
Q

what is the model included in the humanistic approach?

A
  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
123
Q

what is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (humanistic approach)?

A
  • self actualisation
  • esteem
  • love/ belonging
  • safety
  • physiological
124
Q

how is an individual able to achieve self actualisation (humanistic approach)?

A
  • if they experience an appropriate environment of unconditional love and positive regard
125
Q

what happens if a person doesn’t experience unconditional positive regard (humanistic approach)?

A
  • may develop conditions of worth
  • ie. a young person who feels they have to fulfil certain conditions in order for their parents to love them
126
Q

who were the typical individuals who achieved self actualisation according to Maslow (humanistic approach)?

A
  • creative
  • accepting of others
  • had an accurate perception of reality
127
Q

how counselling psychology help a person achieve self actualisation (humanistic approach)?

A
  • Rogers claimed that an individuals psychological problems were a direct result of their conditions of worth and conditional positive regard received from others
  • with counselling people would be able to solve their own problems in a constructive way and move towards becoming a more fully functioning functioning person
  • therapists act as guides to help people understand themselves
128
Q

how is humanistic counselling different from other types?

A
  • client led counselling
129
Q

how can the humanistic approach be supported through research?

A
  • research support for conditions of worth
  • individuals who experience conditional positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self behaviour’ (doing things to meet others expectations, even if they don’t match own values)
  • Harter et al discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves
  • they were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their self
130
Q

how can the humanistic approach be criticised as unrealistic?

A
  • represents an overly idealised view of human nature as critics argue that people are not as inherently good and growth orientated as humanistic theorists suggest
  • the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self destructive behaviour
  • view that personality development is directed only by innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification
  • encouraging people to focus on their own self development rather than on situational forces may not be realistic or appropriate in modern society
131
Q

how can the humanistic approach be criticised as failing to establish causality?

A
  • Rogers in particular was an advocate of non experimental research methods as he argued experimental method requirements makes it impossible to verify counselling results
  • most psychologists would argue that without experimental methods evaluating the therapy becomes very difficult
  • although some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling these do not show that the therapy in particular caused these changes (no causality)
132
Q

what is determinism (comparison)?

A
  • belief that all behaviour is determined by external forces beyond our control
  • ie. biology
133
Q

what is free will (comparison)?

A
  • behaviour is self determined
  • ie. humanistic approach
134
Q

what is nature (comparison)?

A
  • behaviour is a product of a person’s genes and biology
135
Q

what is nurture (comparison)?

A
  • interaction with the environment
136
Q

how can the approaches be compared?

A
  • nature vs. nurture
  • determinism vs. free will
  • psychology as a science vs. non scientific
137
Q

what approaches can be considered deterministic (comparison)?

A
  • behaviourist
  • social learning theory (both)
  • cognitive
  • biological
  • psychodynamic
138
Q

what approaches can be considered to be based on our own free will (comparison)?

A
  • humanistic
  • social learning theory (both)
139
Q

what approaches origin can be considered nurture (comparison)?

A
  • behaviourist
  • social learning theory
  • cognitive (both)
  • psychodynamic (both)
  • humanistic (both)
140
Q

what approaches origin can be considered nature (comparison)?

A
  • cognitive (both)
  • biological
  • psychodynamic (both)
  • humanistic (both)
141
Q

how committed is the behaviourist approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • positive
  • highly objective and experimentally based
  • high degree of replication
142
Q

how committed is the social learning theory approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • positive
  • investigations are reliable and allow cause and effect to be established
  • however can be carried out in artificial lab settings (questions validity)
143
Q

how committed is the cognitive approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • positive to a degree
  • most propositions can be easily tested
  • however as most mental processes are largely unobservable, inference is needed to develop cognitive models
144
Q

how committed is the biological approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • positive
  • lends itself to experimental study
145
Q

how committed is the psychodynamic approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • mixed
  • although some aspects are available to scientific investigation, there tends to be greater reliance on case studies and subjective interpretation
146
Q

how committed is the humanistic approach to the scientific method (comparison)?

A
  • largely negative
  • scientific research methods are claimed to be derived from and suited for natural sciences
  • not appropriate for studying complexities of human consciousness and experience
147
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • external forces in the environment shape our behaviour (determined)
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise the role of nurture more than nature
  • behaviourism aligns itself strongly with the scientific method
148
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the social learning theory approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • behaviour is learned as a result of observation of others (determined)
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise role of nurture more than nature
  • scientific method but research can lack validity
149
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • thought processes determine behaviour (some degree of free will)
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise role of nature and nurture
  • scientific method despite some inference
150
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the biological approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • physiological/ inherited factors determine behaviour
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise role of nature more than nurture
  • strong alignment with scientific method
151
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the psychodynamic approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • unconscious factors beyond our conscious control determine behaviour
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise role of nature and nurture
  • not much alignment with scientific method
152
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the humanistic approach as an overview (comparison)?

A
  • behaviour is under conscious control (free will)
  • explanations of behaviour emphasise role of nature and nurture
  • rejects use of scientific method
153
Q

which two approaches can be compared using their treatments (comparison)?

A
  • behaviourist
  • biological
154
Q

what treatments has the behaviourist approach led to (comparison)?

A
  • systematic desensitisation
155
Q

what treatments has the biological approach led to (comparison)?

A
  • drug therapy
156
Q

how do biological and behaviourist treatments differ (comparison)?

A
  • biological treatments take away the control from the client whereas behaviourist treatments give clients a sense of control
  • biological treatments have a biological basis (take a tablet rather than talk) whereas behaviourist treatments have a psychological basis (talk with a therapist)
  • biological treatments take a short amount of time (time it takes to swallow a tablet) whereas behaviourist treatments take longer (each sessions last approximately an hour)
157
Q

how are biological and behaviourist treatments similar (comparison)?

A
  • treat symptoms not cause

Psychology (11 decks)

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