Approaches Flashcards
What is Wundt’s nickname in the psychology community?
Father of psychology
Which research method became the preferred way of studying human behaviour because of Wundt (hint: not introspection; it’s one we learned in research methods)?
Lab experiments
When and where did Wundt set up the first Psychology laboratory?
Leipzig, Germany in the 1870s
Wundt believed that the human mind could be studied scientifically. Scientifically in which ways?
Introspection and structuralism
Wundt’s work paved the way for a later approach which studies internal mental processes. Which one?
Cognitive approach
What is structuralism?
Breaking down behaviours (such as perception and sensation) into their basic elements
What is introspection?
A systematic analysis of our own conscious experience of a stimulus
Describe what participants do in a study of introspection.
Wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object (e.g. a metronome) and look inwards to analyse it in terms of its component parts e.g. noticing sensations and feelings and images. Therefore, they would break down their thoughts about an object into separate elements and report it in a systematic way (in the order that the thoughts occurred).
Explain how Wundt made his research as scientific as possible by giving examples of how his research was:
Controlled - He used the same carefully controlled stimuli for each participant (e.g. Metronome), took place in a lab so controlled environment
Objective - Used standardised instructions to prevent investigator effects, he made accurate measurements as a result of using controlled stimuli, standardised procedure) every participant did the same thing via introspection)
Replicable - As a result of all the above, his procedure was replicable)others could repeat it in the exact same way to check the reliability of findings)
Introspection is still used today. How?
Griffiths
It is still used today to gain access to cognitive processes e.g. Griffiths (1994) used introspection to study the cognitive processes of fruit machine gamblers. He asked them to ‘think aloud’ whilst playing a fruit machine into a microphone on their lapel. They found that gamblers used more irrational verbalisations. This has led important theories and treatments for gambling addictions. This demonstrates introspection’s value as one way that mental processes can be investigated (supports its external validity).
Why was Watson critical of introspection?
Watson was highly critical of introspection’s focus on ‘private’ mental processes, arguing that such processes couldn’t be objectively measured. He argued that Psychology is only truly scientific when it restricts itself only to studying phenomena that can be directly observed and measured. This led to the behaviourist approach and the emergence of Psychology as a science.
How is Wundt’s research not entirely scientific?
We can’t directly see peoples thoughts so we can’t measure them
Show the process of how Psychology became a science, beginning with Wundt and ending with the use of scientific methods to study behaviour
Wundt’s idea that we can systematically analyse our own concious experience of a stimulus
Watson argued that we can’t objectively measure mental processes and therefore that introspection isn’t scientific
Empiricism - Watson suggested that all behaviour is a result of observation and experience alone (we learn behaviour)
Empiricism was a more scientific approach to studying psychological phenomena as it is argued that the cause of behaviour was experience/observation and therefore we could predict people’s behvaiour in different situations
Empiricism could be studied scientifically, using objective, systematic and reliable methods
Why is being scientific important in Psychology?
So it can be objective, systematic and reliable
Why is being scientific not always appropriate in Psychology?
Not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour can be explored by the use of scientific methods (e.g. humanists). If human behaviour is not subject to the laws implied by scientific methods, then predictions become impossible and these methods are inappropriate.
According to the behaviourist approach, what is the cause of our behaviour?
They argue that all behaviour is learnt from the environment. We learn new behaviour through classical or operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is learning via…?
Association
Operant conditioning is learning via…?
Consequences
Describe the procedure and results of Pavlov’s study of classical conditioning
Aim = to discover what causes saliva to flow
Procedure = rerouted the salivary glands to the outside of the dogs cheeks so he could measure the saliva produced. He gave the dogs food and measured the saliva, finding that the dogs produced saliva when their tongues touched the food. But eventually, they started producing saliva beforehand as they were anticipating food. So he erected screens so that the dog couldn’t see when the food was coming. He then introduced a stimulus unrelated to food (a metronome) before feeding the dog. This was repeated many times.
Findings = Initially, the dog only produced saliva when its tongue touched the food. But after repeated pairings, the dog learned to associate the metronome with the food and so salivated when it heard the metronome (same volume of saliva as for the food).
Conclusion = He concluded that animal learn by association (theory of classical conditioning).
Explain the process of classical conditioning, using all of the technical terminology (including association)
Classical conditioning is the idea that we learn by association. Initially, there is a reflex where an unconditioned, or natural, stimulus (e.g. a loud noise) causes an unconditioned, or natural, response (e.g. fear). A neutral stimulus (e.g. a clown) does not naturally produce a response.
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (clown) and unconditioned stimulus (loud noise) are paired together, with the neutral stimulus being presented just before the unconditioned stimulus. This often happens repeatedly. Initially the unconditioned response (fear) occurs as a result of the unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
After many pairings, an association is formed between the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus leading to a learned response (conditioned response) to what was previously the neutral stimulus, and is now called the conditioned stimulus (clown). Therefore, the conditioned stimulus (clown) alone now elicits the conditioned response (fear) without the unconditioned stimulus (loud noise) and so learning has taken place.
Describe Watson and Rayner’s study of Little Albert and explain how exactly Little Albert learned to fear white rats using the technical terminology from classical conditioning
They showed Little Albert a range of stimuli including a rat, rabbit, dog. Little Albert liked the white rat the most and so this was chosen for the experiment. Then whenever Little Albert went to touch the white rat, a steel bar was struck creating a loud noise, which frightened him.
Learned to associate the white rat with the loud noise and so was conditioned to have a phobia of the white rat.
Before conditioning:
NS (white rat) –> no response
UCS (loud noise) –> UCR (afraid)
During conditioning:
NS (rat) + UCS (noise) –> UCS (afraid)
An association is formed between the NS and UCS
After conditioning:
CS (rat) –> CR (afraid)
In classical conditioning, what do we mean by generalisation, timing, extinction and one-trial learning?
Generalisation - a CR is produced to stimuli similar to the CS.
Timing - if the NS is presented after the UCS, or it is presented before but there is a big time gap between the NS and UCS, conditioning does not take place.
Extinction - a CR is not permanent. If the CS is presented enough times without the UCS, it loses its ability to produce a CR.
One-trial learning - an association is formed between the NS and UCS after just one pairing
Define reinforcement, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement - a consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. (can be negative and positive)
Punishment - a consequence of behaviour that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
Positive reinforcement - the person is more likely to repeat the behaviour in the futures because they gained something
Negative reinforcement - the person is more likely to repeat the behaviour in the futures because it takes away something bad
What is a Skinner box?
An animal chamber used in behavioural psychology (by behaviourists) to test hypothesis related to behaviour and learning
Describe the procedure and results of Skinner’s study of rats and explain the results using key terms from operant conditioning
Every time the rat was in the cage it was subjected to unpleasant electric shocks. When it hit the lever, the shocks stopped. The rat continued to press the lever repeatedly because it meant it avoided the shocks. This is an example of negative reinforcement because the rat is more likely to repeat the behaviour in future because it avoids an unpleasant consequence.
Which research method do behaviourists use?
Lab experiments
Describe three assumptions of the behaviourist approach
When born our mind is a blank slate.
There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.
Behaviour is the result of stimulus – response (i.e. all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association).
The behaviourist approach has lots of real-world applications. Describe a real-world application of classical conditioning and a real-world application of operant conditioning.
The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real-world behaviours and problems. Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems which have been used successfully in institutions such as prison and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens. When enough tokens are earned, they can be exchanged for privileges. This makes the prisoners/patients more likely to behave appropriately as their positive behaviour is being reinforced.
Or:
Additionally, classical conditioning has been used effectively in the treatment of phobias through flooding and systematic desensitisation. Patients are exposed to the phobic stimulus (CS) which initially causes anxiety and fear (CR) but this eventually peaks and ebbs away. Therefore the patient learns to associate the phobic stimulus (CS) with relaxation (new CR), overcoming their phobia. This has been found to be very effective for a range of phobias e.g. spiders and flying. Key note: when writing a PEEL paragraph, you would only need to include one real-world application.
How do real-world applications support behaviourism?
The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours and help to support treatments. These treatments are particularly advantageous because they require less effort from the patient because they don’t have to think about their problem like in ‘talking’ therapies.
Skinner particularly used very controlled methods. How? Why is this a strength of behaviourism?
Skinner relied on the experimental method, using controlled conditions e.g. the use of the Skinner box [give specific examples here based on your notes on L2b]. He was able to manipulate the independent variable (consequences of behaviour) to accurately measure the effects on the dependent variable (the rat’s behaviour). Therefore, the researchers are able to establish cause and effect relationships between the consequences of behaviour (positive or negative) and the frequency of its future occurrence, supporting the internal validity of the approach. Consequently, behaviourism was able to bring the methods of the natural sciences into psychology by focusing on observable behaviour within controlled lab settings. By emphasising the importance of replication and objectivity, behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline, giving it greater credibility and status.
Behaviourism suffers from hard determinism. How?
Determinism is the idea that our behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces beyond our control rather than our free will to do something. The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. Therefore, the behaviourist approach has been accused of environmental determinism. This therefore ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour. Whilst this is potentially more scientific, it could have the negative consequence of people not taking responsibility for their actions. One of the rules of law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. The suggestion that behaviour is due to environmental factors we can’t control could complicate this principle and mean that perpetrators don’t take responsibility for their crimes. It also has ethical implications for victims of crimes where criminals may not take responsibility for the crimes that they have committed. As such, whilst the behaviourist approach may be a valid explanation of behaviour, it may not be particularly palatable in society.
Ignore
Behaviourists ignore the role of thoughts and emotions impacting behaviour. What evidence do we have that thoughts or emotions influence behaviour? How is this then a problem for the behaviourist approach?
From a behaviourist’s perspective, animals (including humans) are seen as passive and machine-like responders to the environment with little conscious insight into their behaviour. By treating humans as the product of conditioning alone means that we ignore the evidence for the role of other factors in shaping behaviour. Other approaches in psychology, such as the social learning theory and the cognitive approach, have emphasised the importance of mental events during learning. These processes, which mediate between the stimulus and response, suggest that people may play a much more active role in their own learning. [for the top marks here, add evidence from L3 or L4 that mental processes impact behaviour]. The approach also ignores the potential impact of emotional states on behaviour. For example, research has found that human memory may be impacted by anxiety. For example Johnson and Scott found that in a high anxiety situations, a man leaving a lab with blood and a knife, only 33% could identify him from a set of 50 photographs. However, in a low anxiety situation, with a man holding a pen, 49% could correctly identify him from the 50 photographs, showing that anxiety can have a negative effect on recall and memory. This suggests that learning theory may apply less to human than to animal behaviour, or at least may not be able to completely explain all behaviour and so cannot be considered a completely valid explanation of behaviour. However, Skinner rejected this claim, arguing that these internal states are scientifically untestable and therefore the behaviourist approach is more scientific by not studying these factors.
According to social learning theory, what is the cause of behaviour?
SLT suggests that behaviour is learned from experience, but in a social context.
Describe the procedure and results of Bandura et al.’s study. Explain the results
They carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult role models and were then tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model. Half of the children were exposed to adult role models interacting aggressively with a life-sized Bobo doll. And half were exposed to adult models interacting non-aggressively with a life-sized Bobo doll.
The aggressive role model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts towards the doll e.g. striking it with a mallet, accompanied by verbal aggression such as saying ‘POW.’ Following exposure to the role model, the children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. They were then taken into a room where, amongst other toys, was a Bobo doll.
They found that children who observed the aggressive role model reproduced a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the role model. Children who observed the non-aggressive role model exhibited virtually no aggression towards the Bobo doll.
About 1/3 of the children who observed the aggressive role model repeated the role model’s verbal responses, whilst none of the children who had observed the non-aggressive role models made verbally aggressive remarks.
In a follow-up to the study, Bandura and Walters found that children who saw the role model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high level of aggression in their own play.
Which research method do social learning theorists use?
Lab experiments
Describe three assumptions of Social Learning Theory
SLT suggests that behaviour is learned from experience, but in a social context.
Learning occurs through the observation of the behaviour of others (role models) and the rewards and punishments that they receive for their behaviour. Therefore, humans can also learn indirectly (as well as directly through behaviourism).
He believed that there are important mental processes that lie between the stimulus and response proposed by the behaviourist approach. Therefore, it combines principles from both the behaviourist and cognitive approaches
Social Learning Theory has many real-world applications. Name two different behaviours that SLT can explain and explain how.
SLT has been successfully applied to many areas of psychology. For example, modelling has been used to help to treat anxiety disorders, e.g. showing a role model interacting happily with a phobic object. A vicarious association is made between the positive feelings demonstrated and the object.
Aggression is thought to be the result of observational learning. An influential model who behaves in an aggressive way and is seen to be rewarded for such behaviour may be imitated by others.
How do real-world applications support SLT?
The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours and help to support treatments.
SLT relies mostly on laboratory experiments such as those from Bandura et al. Why is this both a good and bad thing?
Goodas the researchers are able to establish cause and effect relationships between the vicarious consequences of behaviour (positive or negative) and the frequency of its future occurrence in the observer, supporting the internal validity of the approach. The focus on observable behaviour within controlled lab settings emphasises the importance of replication and objectivity. Therefore, SLT has helped to give psychology credibility and status as a scientific discipline.
Bad as lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond due to demand characteristics. For example in Bandura et al study, it has been suggested that because the main purpose of the Bobo doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
Therefore, the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life. Consequently, we can’t use the lab studies to strongly support the validity of the SLT explanation of behaviour as the results may be affected by extraneous variables.
In Bandura et al.’s study, boys were found to be more aggressive than girls. Why might this be the case and how is this a weakness of SLT?
By focusing mainly on external behaviour, Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. In the Bobo doll experiments, it was consistently found that boys were more aggressive than girls. This could be explained by hormonal factors such as testosterone, where the higher levels in boys may be linked to increased aggressive behaviour. This means that this important influence on behaviour is not accounted for in SLT and so it cannot be considered a complete explanation of all behaviour.
How can SLT explain cultural differences in behaviour? Why is this a strength of SLT?
SLT has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other individuals around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through societies. This has been useful in understanding a range of behaviours e.g. how children come to understand their gender role. This supports the external validity of the approach as an explanation of behaviour as it can explain why behaviours are different across cultures due to expose to different role models and vicarious reinforcement.
How can SLT be considered a more comprehensive (complete) explanation of behaviour than behaviourism?
Ignore
Neither classical nor operant conditioning (behaviourism) can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and many animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. Bandura argued that it would be boring and dangerous to only learn from the consequences of our own behaviour. By observing others, we form an idea of how new behaviours are performed and we can use these on later occasions. This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
According to the cognitive approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
Behaviour is influenced by conscious and unconscious thoughts (technically called internal mental processes).
Give three examples of different internal mental processes
Attention, memory and thinking
The cognitive approach believes that internal mental processes should be studied __________.
Scientifically and objectively
What is a model and why does the cognitive approach need them?
The cognitive approach has to use models to illustrate internal mental processes because they cannot be seen.
A (theoretical) model is a simplified, usually pictorial, representation of a particular internal mental process that gives us an analogy of how the process works. They often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect or the stages of a particular mental process. It is based on available evidence e.g. from lab experiments.
What is a computer model?
A computer model is when computer analogies are used as a representation of human cognition, suggesting that there is similarity in the way information is processed.
Both types of models are used to create testable theories about internal mental processing which can then be studied scientifically.
What is an inference?
An inference is going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed i.e. conclusions are indirectly drawn about the way internal mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
Why are inferences used by the cognitive approach?
So they can study mental processes indirectly
What is a schema?
A schema is a cognitive (mental) framework of beliefs and expectations that help us to organise and interpret information in the brain. They are developed from experience and help us to make sense of new information. They are used as a ‘reference point’ to help us to behave appropriately. They are effectively ‘packages’ of ideas and information that are learned though experience.
How do schemas develop?
They are learned though experience.
How can schemas be useful (i.e. Strengths of them)?
They help us to process lots of information quickly which is useful as a sort of mental short-cut that stops us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
How can schemas be detrimental (i.e. Weaknesses of them)?
They exclude anything that doesn’t fit our established ideas of the world. Therefore, we may develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm, even with new and conflicting information. They can distort our interpretations of sensory information (because we expect to see, hear etc. something in particular) leading to perceptual errors.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive/mental/thinking processes.
Give an example of an application of cognitive neuroscience
Use of scanning/imaging techniques e.g. to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain leading to treatment for memory problems
Describe three assumptions of the cognitive approach
Behaviour is influenced by conscious and unconscious thoughts. These internal mental processes mediate between the stimulus (input) and response (output). These internal processes can and should be studied scientifically and objectively.
Internal mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists include perception, attention, memory, language, thinking, and problem-solving.
Models are used to create testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically.
The cognitive approach has many real-world applications. Explain one and why this is a strength of the approach.
For example, cognitive approach has been used to explain mental illnesses such as depression in terms of faulty thinking processes, which has led to the development of treatments such as CBT which aims to change people’s thought processes. For example, it has been found that after 36 weeks, 81% of depressed patients treated with CBT. Additionally, cognitive psychology has made important contributions to artificial intelligence and the development of ‘thinking machines’ that may revolutionise how we live in the future. As such applications have been successful, it suggests that the cognitive approach that underlies them is a valid explanation of behaviour e.g. If depression can be treated by changing people’s thoughts, the thoughts seem to be the cause of the depression in the first place. As the approach has many uses in the real-world, it also supports the approach’s external validity as it can be used to better lives.
The cognitive approach is considered to be scientific. Explain how.
The approach has always used highly controlled and rigorous methods in order to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of laboratory experiments in order to produce reliable, objective data. Add an example of this from the memory topic e.g. Loftus and Palmer’s study (each participant given same instructions, told to watch the same thing, same question apart from the one verb). Talk about what they controlled in the study. As such, the study of the mind has established a credible, scientific way for reaching valid conclusions about how the mind works, supporting the cognitive approach.
The cognitive approach suffers from machine reductionism. What is this and what evidence do we have to argue the approach is invalid as a result?
Whilst there are many similarities between the human mind and the operation of computers (e.g. input, storage systems etc.), the computer analogy has been criticised. Such reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information. For example, research has found that human memory may be impacted by anxiety. For example Johnson and Scott found that in a high anxiety situations, a man leaving a lab with blood and a knife, only 33% could identify him from a set of 50 photographs. However, in a low anxiety situation, with a man holding a pen, 49% could correctly identify him from the 50 photographs, showing that anxiety can have a negative effect on recall and memory. This suggests that by ignoring the role of such processes and how they affect our ability to process information and therefore our behaviour, the cognitive approach cannot be considered a complete explanation of human behaviour.
Experiments using the cognitive approach often rely on artificial stimuli. Give an example of this and explain why this is a problem for the approach.
Experimental studies of such mental processes often involve meaningless stimuli (e.g. learning random word lists to make inferences about memory processes) that may not represent the everyday processing experience. Consequently, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity in that the results may not generalise from the artificial stimuli to real-life situations where internal mental processes occur. This suggests that the research cannot strongly support the cognitive approach.
According to the biological approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
The biological approach emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance, hormones, neurochemistry and the nervous system, impacting our behaviour.
As such, the approach argues that behaviour and thought processes have an innate biological basis. Therefore, an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour. E.g. intelligence is due to our genetic make-up.
Genes affect behaviour and influence psychological differences between people. This includes the idea that behaviours have evolved.
Define genes
A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA. This DNA codes the physical (e.g. hair colour) and psychological (e.g. intelligence) features of an organism. E.g. OCD
Define biological structures
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing. E.g. psychopaths
Define neurochemistry/biochemistry
The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system that regulate psychological functioning. This includes the role of neurotransmitters and hormones. E.g. aggression
Define evolution
Evolution is when the genetic make-up of a particular population changes over successive generations. Individuals within a species vary in terms of their physical characteristics and behaviour. As least some of the variation is inherited; this is therefore biological. E.g. relationships
Define genotype
A genotype refers to an individual’s genetic make-up i.e. the genes that they have. This means that genetically identical people have the same predisposition to develop a characteristic (e.g. be overweight) from their genes, unless another factor(s) intervenes. However, it does not reveal whether someone will develop a characteristic.
Define phenotype
A phenotype refers to the observable traits or characteristics (e.g. the weight someone achieves) shown by the individual. These characteristics are due to the combined effects of the genes and environment. Therefore, the phenotypes of these twins may be different because one was encouraged to eat healthily and exercise and the other wasn’t so to be of a different weight they have been influenced by different environments.
If identical twins have different phenotypes, why is this?
Different environment
Describe three assumptions of the biological approach
The biological approach emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, such as genetic inheritance, hormones, neurochemistry and the nervous system, impacting our behaviour.
As such, everything psychological (behaviour and thought processes) has an innate biological basis. Therefore, an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour. E.g. intelligence is due to our genetic make-up.
Genes affect behaviour and influence psychological differences between people. This includes how behaviours have evolved.
The biological approach is classed as a scientific approach. How? Why is this a strength of the approach?
The biological approach uses a range of highly precise and scientific methods in order to investigate the biological bases of behaviour. These include scanning techniques such as fMRIs, twin studies, drug trials and laboratory experiments. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure biological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. Experiments are also highly controlled environments which mean that researchers are able to replicate studies under the same conditions. Add an example here of a controlled study (you can take any from the whole course that has studied the biological approach). This suggests that the approach is based on reliable and objective data. By emphasising the importance of these features of science, the biological approach contributes positively to the credibility and status of psychology as a science.
The biological approach suffers from hard determinism. How? Why is this considered to be a weakness?
The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes that we have no control over. This has implications for our legal system and wider society. One of the rules of law is that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. The discovery of a ‘criminal gene’ if there was such a thing, could complicate this principle. Additionally, this may lead to genetic screening of the population to identify this susceptibility and discrimination against those people. This has ethical implications for people with the genetic predisposition as well as victims of crimes where criminals may not take responsibility for the crimes that they have committed. However, other psychologists suggest that if individuals discover that they have a genetic predisposition for criminality, this gives them the opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or develop coping skills that would protect them from its influence.
The biological approach has important real-world applications for drug therapies. Give evidence to support that these are effective and explain why this is a strength of the approach.
The biological approach provides clear predictions (e.g. about the effects of neurotransmitters or genes on behaviour). This has led to significant applications of the approach in the real-world. For example, research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression has led to the development of drug treatments which correct this imbalance and minimise depressive symptoms. For example, it has been found that after 36 weeks 81% of depressed patients treated with medication. This means that sufferers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life, rather than remain in hospital. These support the external validity of the approach as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours and help to support treatments. These treatments are particularly advantageous because they require less effort from the patient because they don’t have to think about their problem like ‘talking’ therapies. This may be especially important for those with depression who may be so severely depressed that they lack the motivation to engage with such therapies.
The biological approach is reductionist. How? What evidence do we have that other factors influence behaviour?
Ignore
For example, many explanations of mental disorders are reductionist because genes or neurochemical imbalances are believed to be the main causes of these disorders. Therefore, biological explanations are unlikely to be complete explanations of behaviour as other factors are likely to contribute to mental disorders like depression e.g. cognitive, emotional and cultural factors. Add evidence here that they are important (e.g. Anxiety affecting EWT or Bandura’s study). However, reducing complex human behaviours down to their most simple biological elements does have its advantages. The ability to isolate biological factors such as biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious illnesses such as depression. Although these drugs are not effective for all patients, they have revolutionised treatment for many.
What is the problem with using twin studies to support the biological approach?
Twin studies assume that both MZ and DZ twin pairs share the same environments, however the environment may be more similar for MZ compared to DZ twins. MZ twins tend to be treated more similarly by their parents and other people than DZ twins as they are identical. This means that the findings could just as easily be interpreted as supporting nurture rather than nature. Consequently, twin studies may not be able to as strongly support the biological approach as first thought. Additionally, the approach has difficulty in accounting for results where DZ twins often show higher concordance rates than ordinary siblings. This is likely to be explained by the influence of nurture as DZs and ordinary siblings both have about 50% (on average) genes in common.
According to the psychodynamic approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
According to the psychodynamic approach, our behaviour is caused by unconscious factors that are largely unknown to us and beyond our control. The unconscious mind is the part of our mind that we are unaware of. According to the psychodynamic approach, the unconscious makes up most of our mind.
What does the unconscious contain?
The unconscious contains repressed ideas and memories, and primitive desires, drives, impulses and instincts. These then influence most of our everyday thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
How do events in childhood influence our adult lives?
Events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives as they shape our personality (and therefore behaviour). Events that occur in our childhood can remain in the unconscious and influence our adult behaviour. Therefore, our relationships are very important according to the psychodynamic approach, particularly the relationship between parent and child.
What are the two roles of the unconscious?
Personality and behaviour are caused by unconscious factors which are largely unknown to us and beyond our control.
The unconscious also protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict.
What is the tripartite structure of the personality?
Freud described the personality as being tripartite i.e. composed of three parts: the id, ego and superego.
Each part of the personality demands gratification, but is frequently in conflict with the other parts.
Experience/conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts, which affects how a person behaves.
Describe the Id
This is the primitive part of our personality that is formed from birth to 18 months. It is the source of our unconscious desires, impulses, drives and instincts. It operates on the pleasure principle – it demands immediate gratification of its needs regardless of circumstances (i.e. it gets what it wants). These needs consist of hunger, thirst and sex. It focuses on the self (selfish), is irrational and emotional. It deals with feelings and needs. It contains the libido – the biological energy created by reproductive instincts.
Describe the ego
The ego is the rational part of our mind that mediates between the id and superego that is formed between 18 months and 3 years. It operates on the reality principle – it mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the reality of the external world. The child realises that the demands of the id cannot always be met. It seeks to satisfy the id in socially acceptable ways. It is conscious. Its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and superego.
Describe the superego
The superego is our internalised sense of right and wrong based on parental and societal values (i.e. it acts as our conscience or moral guide) and is formed between 3-6 years. It is at around this age that parents start to demand that the child acts in more socially acceptable ways. The superego gradually takes over this parental role and tells us inside our own head how we should behave. It is unconscious. It operates on the morality principle– it is our internal representation of the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken.
What are the psychosexual stages of development generally?
Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages.
These are referred to as psychosexual stages because Freud believed that children are born with a libido – an unconscious sexual (pleasure) urge.
Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage.
Any unresolved conflict leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with the stage into adult life.
Describe three assumptions of the psychodynamic approach.
According to the psychodynamic approach, all human behaviour can be explained in terms of inner conflicts of the mind (think about the tripartite structure of the personality - id, ego and superego are always in conflict).
Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious – the part of our mind that we are unaware of. The unconscious contains repressed ideas and memories, and primitive desires, drives, impulses and instincts. These then influence most of our everyday thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Therefore, behaviour is caused by unconscious factors which are largely unknown to us and beyond our control.
The unconscious extends its influence into every part of our waking and sleeping lives. Psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and influence our behaviour as adults.
The psychodynamic approach has real-world applications to explain a number of behaviours and drawing attention to the connection between our childhood experiences and adult behaviour. Give two examples of behaviour that the approach can explain and explain why this is a strength of the approach.
Freud’s theory is controversial but it has had a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought. Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the 1st half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena such as personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender. The approach has also been significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and later development. The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to explain a wide range of behaviours.
Freud created a new therapy called psychoanalysis. What does this involve?
Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy, called psychoanalysis. This employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious e.g. dream analysis and hypnosis. Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather than biological, treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety. A large-scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained years after treatment. The applications of the approach support its external validity as they suggest that the principles can be used to help to support treatments. However, these treatments require a lot of effort from the patient because they have to think about their problems unlike with drug therapies. Additionally, psychoanalysis has been criticised as inappropriate, and even harmful, for people suffering from more serious mental disorders such as schizophrenia.
Psychoanalysis may be less relevant to non-western cultures. Why is this and why is this a problem for the approach?
Ignore
Psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures. Many cultural groups don’t value insight in the same way that Western cultures do. In China, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly. This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy. Therefore, the applications of the psychodynamic approach may be culturally relative.
The psychodynamic approach is considered to have face validity. What does this mean? Give an example of the approach having face validity.
Ignore
Many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many of them have been supported by scientific methodology. For example, a meta-analysis concluded that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology. In particular, they found support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour as well as for the defence mechanisms. These support the validity of the psychodynamic approach as they support the importance of the unconscious and defence mechanisms in behaviour.
The psychodynamic approach is considered unfalsifiable. Why? Why is this a problem for the approach?
Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn’t meet the scientific criterion of falsification. This is because it is not open to empirical testing, and therefore the possibility of being disproved. Many of Freud’s concepts, such as the id, Oedipus complex and defence mechanisms, are unconscious and so cannot be studied directly. They can only be inferred from behaviour or from reported thoughts or experiences. Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach is therefore a pseudoscience (‘fake’ science) rather than real science. Therefore it is a less credible and scientific approach than many of the other approaches.
The psychodynamic approach often relied on case studies. Why is this problematic?
Freud’s theory was based on intensive case studies of individuals who were often in therapy. Although the observations were detailed and carefully recorded, critics have suggested that it is not possible to make universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a small number of individuals who were psychologically abnormal. Additionally, the interpretations were highly subjective. It is unlikely in the case of Little Hans for example, that any other researcher would have drawn the same conclusions. In comparison to the other approaches, Freud’s methods lack scientific rigour and so from the research we are unable to strongly support the psychodynamic approach.
Describe the case study of Little Hans
A case study by Freud is ‘Little Hans’ 1909, who developed a phobia of horses. Hans was 5 years old and developed his fear after seeing a horse that was pulling a carriage, fall over and kick his feet in the air. Little Hans was terrified, and thought that the horse dead. According to Freud, Little Hans was experiencing the ‘Oedipus Complex’ – wanting to possess his mother, and saw his father as a rival. He displaced the fear of his father onto horses. The blinkers on the horse reminded Little Hans of his father’s glasses, and the black around the horse’s mouth reminded Little Hans of his father’s beard and moustache! Thus, horses were merely a symbolic representation of Han’s real unconscious fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus Complex.
The approach suffers from psychic determinism. How? Why is this a problem for the approach?
Unconscious factors beyond our control are responsible for behaviour and so we have no free will.
According to the humanistic approach, what is the cause of behaviour?
It claims that humans are self-determining and have free will – we have full conscious control and can make choices that are not determined by biological or external forces i.e. our behavior is our choice. This doesn’t mean that we aren’t affected by external or internal influences, but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development.
How does the humanistic approach reject scientific models? What is it called as a result?
This is an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasizes the importance of subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person. Rogers and Maslow reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behavior. It is often referred to as a person-centered approach.
What does the humanistic approach emphasise the importance of?
It emphasises the importance of personal growth (developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented) and fulfilment.
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs as a way for employers to get the best out of their employees by understanding their needs, but it has been adapted to explain needs in general terms.
What is self-actualisation? Describe this in as much detail as you can.
Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. This means that you have fulfilled your desire to grow psychologically and fulfil your full potential – becoming what you are capable of. These people tend to be creative, accepting of others and have an accurate perception of the world around them.
To work towards self-actualisation, you must first fulfil the needs of the lower levels of the hierarchy and fulfil your potential. We are therefore motivated to achieve progression through the levels.
Describe each level of the hierarchy
Stage 1: Physiological needs - breathing, air, water, food, drink, warmth, sleep, sex
Stage 2: Saftey and security needs - security of body, employment, resrouces, morality, health, familu, properlry, order, rules law
Stage 3: Belonging and love needs - family, affection, relationships, sexual intimacy
Stage 4: Esteem needs - self-esteem, confidence, achievement, status, responsibility, respect of and by others
Stage 5 (added later): Cognitive needs - able to think for ourselves, solve problems
Stage 6 (added later): Aesthetic needs - appreication of beauty and ‘prettiness’
Stage 7: Self actualisation - personal growth, fulfilment
What are the rules of the hiearchy?
Everyone is motivated to move up the hierarchy - as we have an innate tendency to fulfil our potential
Stage 5 and 6 were added later
Self actualisation is blocked if needs lower down on the hierarchy aren’t met
Describe what is involved in Rogers’ client-centred therapy (counselling psychology)
Rogers referred to those in therapy as clients rather than patients as he saw the individual as an expert of their own condition. Thus, therapy is non-directive, and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive and non-judgemental. The client is seen as in control of their condition (free will).
The therapy uses the techniques above (e.g. unconditional positive regard to reduce incongruence).
Client-centred therapy has been praised as a forward-looking and effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past. However, much like psychoanalysis, it is best applied to the treatment of ‘mild’ psychological conditions such as anxiety and low self-worth.
The humanistic approach is difficult to test. Give an example of this of both Maslow and Rogers’ ideas. Why is this then a problem for the approach?
Humanistic psychology includes a number of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test. Concepts such as self-actualisation and congruence may be useful therapeutic tools, but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions. Humanistic psychology is therefore short of empirical evidence to support its claims. Therefore the approach is a less credible and scientific approach than many of the other approaches because the evidence to support it fails to establish cause and effect which is a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology.
The approach is thought to apply more to individualist cultures than collectivist ones. Why is this and why is this a problem for the approach?
Many of the ideas that are central to the humanistic approach e.g. autonomy, freedom and personal growth, would be more readily associated with individualistic cultures in the Western world. Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of the humanistic approach. Therefore, it is possible that this approach would not travel well and is a product of cultural context within which is was developed.
The humanistic approach is considered to be overly idealised and unrealistic. Why is this?
Ignore
Humanistic psychology represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. Critics argue that people are not as inherently good and ‘growth-oriented’ as humanistic theorists suggest, and the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification, as is the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation. Encouraging people to focus on their own self-development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society.
Humanists reject reductionism. How? Why is this a strength of the approach?
Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person back into Psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition. Freud saw humans as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between common unhappiness and absolute despair. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative; it sees all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
The humanistic approach has fewer real-world applications than most other approaches. Why is this and what does this tell us about the approach?
Unlike some of the other approaches, humanistic psychology has relatively little real-world applications. Rogerian therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace. However, it remains the case that the approach has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole. This may in part be due to the lack of a sound evidence-base and also due to the fact that the approach has been described as a loose set of rather abstract concepts, rather than a comprehensive theory.
Name three ways to compare behaviourism and SLT
Both say behaviour is learned
Both positively committed to science
Behaviourism hard determinism; SLT soft determinism
Name three ways to compare behaviourism and cognitive
Both positively committed to science
Both got useful treatments for mental illnesses
Behaviourism = nurture; cognitive = nature and nurture
Name three ways to compare behaviourism and biological
Both hard determinism
Both reductionist
Behaviourist = nurture; biological mostly nature
Name three ways to compare behaviourism and psychodynamic
Both hard determinism
Behaviourism uses non-human animals; psychodynamic humans only
Behaviourism has more useful treatments for mental illnesses
Name three ways to compare behaviourism and humanistic
Behaviourism hard determinism; humanistic free will
Reductionism vs holism
Behaviourism more positively committed to science; humanistic is negative commitment
Name three ways to compare SLT and cognitive
Both study humans only
Both soft determinism
Cognitive has more useful treatments for mental illnesses
Name three ways to compare SLT and biological
Both positively committed to science
Biological more nature; SLT more nurture
Biological has more useful treatments for mental illnesses
Name three ways to compare SLT and psychodynamic
Both study humans only
Both a mix of nature and nurture
Psychodynamic has more useful treatments for mental illnesses
Name three ways to compare SLT and humanistic
Both a mix of nature and nurture
SLT soft determinism (reciprocal); humanistic free will
SLT more positively committed to science
Name three ways to compare cognitive and biological
Both reductionist
Both positively committed to science
Cognitive soft determinism; biological hard determinism
Name three ways to compare cognitive and psychodynamic
Both argue that thoughts are important in determining behaviour
Cognitive soft determinism; psychodynamic hard determinism
Cognitive more positively committed to science
Name three ways to compare cognitive and humanistic
Both a mix of nature and nurture
Cognitive soft determinism; humanistic free will
Machine reductionism vs holism
Name three ways to compare biological and psychodynamic
Both hard determinism
Biological more nature than psychodynamic
Biological has more useful treatments for mental illnesses
Name three ways to compare biological and humanistic
Biological hard determinism; humanistic free will
Reduction vs holism
Biological more positively committed to science
Name three ways to compare psychodynamic and humanistic
Both not positively committed to science
Psychodynamic hard determinism; humanistic free will
Psychodynamic mixed commitment to science; humanistic negative
Define personal growth
Developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented
Define self
The way a person sees themselves
Define ideal self
The person they want to be
Describe congruence
The fit/match/comparability/consistency between the perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like to be).
Describe incongruence
Ideal self and self not matching
Describe conditions of worth
Withholding of positive regard/love/affection/esteem
Describe unconditional postive regard
Unconditional love
Define role model
A person who carries out (or ‘models’) an attitude or behaviour to be learned. They become this when they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer or are attractive or of a higher status.
Define live model
A type of role model who is actually present in our environment e.g. teachers, parents, siblings etc.
Define symbolic model
A type of role model who are present in the media e.g. celebrities.
Define identification
The extent to which an individual relates to a role model and feels that they are similar to them, so want to be like a role model e.g. they may both be female, be about the same age, the role model may have something the observer really wants e.g. fame, fortune etc.
Define modelling
This is when a role model precisely demonstrates a specific behaviour so that it can be imitated by an observer
Define observational learning
The observer learns how to do the behaviour
Define vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement that is not directly experienced, but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
Define vicarious punishment
You see a role model being punished so are less likely to imitate them.
Define imitation
Using someone as a model and copying their behaviour.
Define mediational processes
There are cognitive (mental) processes occur between stimulus (the observation of the role model’s behaviour) and response (imitation) that affect whether the learned behaviour is produced.
Define retention
Remembering the behaviour so that they can do the same.
Define reproduction
Consideration of our own ability to perform the behaviour.
Define motivation
The will or desire to perform the behaviour (usually linked to vicarious reinforcement).
Describe the oral stage including the age it happens, the characteristics and consequences of fixation
0-18 months
The focus of libido is the mouth. The child is being breast fed and weaned. The mother’s breast is the object of desire. They are passive, receptive and dependent.
They also focus on exploring with their mouths. They will pick up and suck objects. The mouth is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy.
This is the least contentious of the stages; there is biological evidence that babies do have more nerve endings in this area and from a survival point of view it makes perfect sense to derive pleasure from suckling.
Freud suggested that an individual could become fixated in this stage if they were either under or over fed as a baby. A fixation here could lead to smoking, biting nails, being sarcastic and critical as an adult.
Describe the anal stage including the age it happens, the characteristics and consequences of fixation
18 months - 3 years
The focus of Libido is on the anus as this is when potty training takes place. The ego develops as parents impose restrictions and the child becomes aware of the demands of reality and the need to conform to the demands of others. It is the first time the child experiences any sort of control (expulsion/retention of faeces) and the child gains pleasure from these activities.
Too strict or too lax potty training can result in the child becoming fixated in this stage. The child may also come to realise that they can exercise power over the parents by the retention or expulsion of faeces. There are two possible outcomes to this fixation, either an anally retentive or an anally expulsive personality. Anally retentive people are perfectionists and obsessive. Anally expulsive people are thoughtless and messy.
Describe the phallic stage including the age it happens, the characteristics and consequences of fixation
3-6 years
The focus is on the genitals. Curiosity and examination. The child becomes fully aware of gender differences; it becomes obsessed with its own genitals. The superego develops through resolution of the Oedipus or Electra complex. Identification with same sex parent leads to formation of gender identity.
Phallic personality – narcissistic and reckless. Freud also suggested that this may lead to homosexuality.
Describe the latent stage including the age it happens, the characteristics and consequences of fixation
6-12 years
In this stage sexual desires remain dormant. Earlier conflicts and issues are repressed with the consequence that children are unable to remember much of their early years. Children want nothing to do with the opposite sex, as social and intellectual development occurs. The child develops mastery of the world around them.
Describe the genital stage including the age it happens, the characteristics and consequences of fixation
Puberty onwards
This stage marks the beginning of mature adult sexuality. Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. The calm of latency is disrupted as the id makes powerful demands in the form of heterosexual desires. The opposite sex is now needed to satisfy the libido. This eventually directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life.
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships.
Define defence mechanisms
If an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally, defence mechanisms may be triggered. These tend to work unconsciously and work by distorting reality so that anxiety is reduced. They ensure that the ego is not overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas.
Define denial
This is the refusal to acknowledge and accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event. The person acts as if the event never happened.
Define repression
This is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. The distressing memory is forced out of the conscious mind. However, these repressed thoughts and impulses in the unconscious continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour.
Define displacement
This is transferring your emotions from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target. Therefore, in situations where the person feels unable to express their thoughts or feelings in the presence of the person they should be directed towards, the thoughts or feelings are redirected onto someone or something else. This gives their hostile feelings a route for expression, even though they are misapplied to an innocent person or object.
Describe how comparative method is used to investigates the biological approach
This is where animals are studied and conclusions are generalised to humans.
Describe how scanning techniques are used to investigate the biological approach
Biological psychologists can scan the brain to determine the influence of biological structures on behaviour. For instance, fMRI scans of London taxi drivers showed that they have larger hippocampi than a control group. This suggests that the hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation.
Describe how experiments are used to investigate the biological appraoch
Biological psychologists use laboratory experiments, particularly on animals to study the roles of inheritance and evolution on behaviour.
Describe how case studies are used to investigate the biological approach
People who go through accidents and suffer brain damage can be studied to tell us about the functions of different regions of the brain. For example, Phineas Gage suffered damage to his ventromedial frontal lobes when an iron rod went through his head (he survived!). He had difficulty making rational decisions and processing emotions. This led psychologists to believe that these are the functions of the ventromedial frontal lobes.
Describe how twin studies are used to investigate the biological approach
They find pairs of twins where one of the two has a characteristic they are interested in (e.g. Schizophrenia). Then they measure whether the other twin has the characteristic too and calculate concordance rates.
Describe how adoption studies are used to investigate the biological approach
They find people who were adopted who have a characteristic they are interested in. They then measure whether the biological parents also have the characteristic and whether the adopted parents also have the characteristic.
