Aggression Flashcards

Question

Explain one study that says that testosterone by itself does not cause aggression. What does it say leads to the aggression? What does this tell us about the theory?

Answer 1

There is mixed evidence of a link between testosterone and aggression in humans. Carre and Mehta (2011) developed a dual-hormone hypothesis to explain why. They claim that high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour, but only when cortisol levels (linked to stress) are low. When cortisol levels are high, testosterone's influence on aggression is blocked. Therefore the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of aggression than either hormone alone and so the testosterone explanation may not be a completely valid explanation of aggression.

Answer 2

Ziomkiewica et al. (2012) found a negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-reported aggression. This supports that progesterone levels are linked with aggressive behaviour in humans, where lower levels are correlated with more aggressive behaviour, suggesting the explanation as some validity. Counterargument: however, this is only a correlation, meaning that from the study we cannot strongly support the internal validity of the role of progesterone in aggression as we cannot determine cause and effect between progesterone levels and aggressive behaviour.

Answer 3

The propensity for aggressive behaviour lies in a person’s genetic make-up i.e. offspring inherit aggression from their parents via genes.

Answer 4

Coccaro et al. (1997) : They studied adult male monozygotic (MZ – identical) and dizygotic (DZ – non-identical) twins. For aggressive behaviour (defined as direct physical assault), the researchers found concordance rates of 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZs. The corresponding figures for verbal aggression were 28% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins. The results suggest that aggression is at least partly genetic because the concordance rate is higher for MZ twins than DZ twins and MZ twins have more genes in common than DZ twins. Therefore, the greater similarity in aggression could be inferred to be due to their greater genetic similarity. Evaluation - environment must also play a role in aggression because the concordance rate for MZ twins who share 100% of their genes is not 100%.

Answer 5

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme which regulates the metabolism (breaking down of a neurotransmitter after a neural impulse has been transmitted from one neuron to another) of serotonin in the brain. There is a gene responsible for producing this enzyme that has been associated with aggressive behaviour. One low activity variant (allele) of the MAOA gene (nicknamed the ‘warrior gene’) leads to low MAOA activity in areas of the brain, and has been associated with various forms of aggressive behaviour.

Answer 6

Brunner et al. (1993) studied 28 members of a large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive criminal behaviours such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault. They found that these men had abnormally low levels of MAOA in their brains and the low-activity version of the MAOA gene. It shows that the low levels of the gene cause aggression.

Answer 7

Twin and adoption studies make use of different research methods. Some use self-report techniques whilst others use observational techniques. For example, in the Miles and Carey (1997) meta-analysis, they found that genetic factors explained a large proportion of the variance in aggressive behaviour in studies that had used parental or self-reports. However, those that had made use of observational ratings showed significantly less genetic contribution and a greater influence of environmental factors. These inconsistencies make it difficult to accurately assess the relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences on aggression. Therefore from the research is difficult to strongly support the role of genetic factors in aggression.

Answer 8

The genetic explanation of aggression is determinist in that it sees aggressive behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes that we have no control over (i.e. We have no free will over our behaviour). This has implications for our legal system and wider society. One of the rules of law is that offenders (aggressive or otherwise) are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions. The links between genes and aggression could complicate this principle. Some legal experts now question the assumption that a violent offender can exercise their free will when they have a genetic predisposition to violent crime i.e. the research could be used as evidence of a defendant’s diminished responsibility. Such a change may force us to revise our notions of moral and legal responsibility based on the findings of the research. Additionally, this may lead to genetic screening of the population to identify this susceptibility and discrimination against those people. This makes an awareness of the limitations of genetic research extremely important.

Answer 9

This has ethical implications for people with the genetic predisposition (as they may be monitored in their daily activities which breaches their right to privacy) as well as victims of crimes where criminals may not take responsibility for the crimes that they have committed and so it may not be a palatable explanation of aggression. It appears that we should apply the theory with caution as currently there are so many flaws with the research, that it cannot be confidently concluded that genetics plays the greatest role in the determination of aggressive behaviour. Counterargument: However, other psychologists suggest that if individuals discover that they have a genetic predisposition for aggression, this gives them the opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or develop coping skills that would protect them from their influence.

Answer 10

Morley and Hall (2003) argue that genes associated with aggression are deterministic and only poorly predict the likelihood that an individual will display higher levels of aggressive behaviour. Additionally, the presence or absence of environmental risk factors cannot be identified using a genetic test, making the accurate prediction of specific behaviours even less likely. This is supported by Caspi et al.’s study.

Answer 11

The MAOA gene research offers an explanation for the uneven rates of aggression and violence for males and females. Niehoff (2014) suggests that this may be due to the different genetic vulnerabilities that males and females have to the MAOA gene. The MAOA gene is linked to the X chromosome. Women have two X chromosomes, whereas men only have one. When men inherit an X-linked gene from their mothers, they are more likely to be affected by it, whereas women inheriting the same gene are generally unaffected (as they also have the a second X chromosome with a ‘normal’ gene for MAOA that prevents expression of the abnormal version of the gene). This could explain why males typically show more aggressive behaviour than females and so gives us more confidence in the validity of the explanation of aggression as it can explain real differences in rates of aggression.

Answer 12

Mertins et al. (2011) studied participants with low-activity and high-activity variants of the MAOA gene in a money-distributing game. Participants had to make decisions about whether or not to contribute money for the good of the group. The researchers found that males with the high-activity variant were more cooperative and made fewer aggressive moves than the low-activity participants. This supports the importance of the MAOA gene in aggressive behaviour. It suggests that possession of the high-activity variant leads to the exact opposite behaviour (cooperation) to that associated with the low-activity variant (aggression). The two predictions of the MAOA explanation are opposite sides of the same coin. As both are confirmed by research evidence, this increases our confidence that the genetic explanation is a valid account of how genes influence aggressive behaviour.

Answer 13

Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural settings. The findings are then extrapolated to humans because we are all subject to the same forces of natural selection.

Answer 14

Ethological explanations suggest that aggression is an innate behaviour (instinct) that is mostly genetically determined.

Answer 15

Therefore, it is suggested that aggression is adaptive i.e. it is beneficial for survival, and therefore the animal is alive to reproduce.

Answer 16

The aggression is then passed down to the offspring via natural selection.

Answer 17

Ritualistic aggression is a series of aggressive behaviours carried out in a set order.

Answer 18

Lorenz noted that fights between conspecifics involve very little physical damage. Instead, most aggressive encounters consisted of a period of ritualistic signalling in the form of threat displays. E.g. baring claws and teeth, beating chest etc. Such aggression is adaptive because it enables competitors to assess their relative strength before deciding to escalate a conflict. They are intended to intimidate an opponent and make them back down. This makes costly and dangerous physical aggression less likely to occur ensuring the survival of the species. They survive and then pass genes down via natural selection

Answer 19

Lorenz pointed out that aggression between conspecifics end with ritual appeasement displays which indicate acceptance of defeat e.g. wolves exposing their jugulars. This is adaptive because in signalling defeat, it inhibits further aggression by the victor, preventing further damage or death of the loser, again ensuring the survival of the species. They survive and then pass genes down via natural selection

Answer 20

One adaptive function of aggression is to establish domin0ance hierarchies with the winners of conflicts climbing the social hierarchy. This increased status leads to other benefits such as access to mates. Therefore aggression is adaptive because dominance over others brings benefits such as access to resources (aiding survival) and mates (reproduction – so aggression is naturally selected). Aggression is also beneficial to survival because a defeated animal is rarely killed. Instead, they are forced to establish territory elsewhere. Therefore, individuals that win conflicts have greater access to resources as there is less direct competition for things such as food. As such, aggression is adaptive in that it aids survival and so is naturally selected. It also has the added benefit of spreading the members of a species out over a wider area, reducing the possibility of starvation for all.

Answer 21

Innate releasing mechanisms are a key part of the ethological explanation of aggression. They are hard-wired networks of neurons in the brain that respond to an environmental stimulus (a sign or releaser such as a facial expression) by initiating a fixed action pattern.

Answer 22

A fixed action pattern is a set sequence of behaviours (in this case, aggression). These behaviours are stereotyped to occur only in specific conditions and do not require learning (i.e. they are innate).

Answer 23

- They are stereotyped – they are relatively unchanging sequences of behaviours - They are universal – the same behaviour is found in every individual of a species. - They are unaffected by learning – they are the same for every individual regardless of experience. - They are ‘ballistic’ – once the behaviour is triggered, it follows an inevitable course and cannot be altered before it is completed. - They are single-purpose – the behaviour only occurs in a specific situation and not in any other. - They are a response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus (or if it involves communication between members of the same species, it is known as a releaser).

Answer 24

A sign or releaser triggers

Answer 25

Environmental stimulus (a sign or releaser triggers) --> Innate releasing mechanism (hard wired set of neurones in brain that responds to this by triggering...) --> Fixed action pattern (a set sequence of behaviours - aggression)

Answer 26

Identify the environmental stimulus. Red underbelly of the stickleback fish What is the fixed action pattern that occurs? Aggression - attacks the other stickleback fish (head butts) Explain how the fixed action pattern shown by the stickleback matches the characteristics of FAPs. - They are stereotyped – they are relatively unchanging sequences of behaviours - head butts the other fish until it leaves - They are universal – the same behaviour is found in every individual of a species. - this happens in every male stickleback fish - They are unaffected by learning – they are the same for every individual regardless of experience. - they will always attack a fish with a red underbelly no matter what they're taught - They are ‘ballistic’ – once the behaviour is triggered, it follows an inevitable course and cannot be altered before it is completed. Male stickleback fish will continue to attack the other fish until the fish leaves (can't be altered or stopped before it's finished) - They are single-purpose – the behaviour only occurs in a specific situation and not in any other. When it sees the red underbelly of the other fish - They are a response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus (or if it involves communication between members of the same species, it is known as a releaser). - When it sees the red underbelly of the other fish Based on the theory, what occurs between the environmental stimulus and FAP? Innate releasing mechanism - hard wired set of neurons that respond to the red underbelly (environmental stimulus) by triggering the aggression (fixed action pattern) Male sticklebacks are highly territorial during mating season, where they also develop a red spot on their underbelly. If another male enters their territory, a fixed action pattern is initiated. The sign stimulus that triggers the innate releasing mechanism is the sight of the red spot. Tinbergen presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes, some with red spots on their underbelly and some without. Regardless of shape, if the model had a red spot the stickleback would aggressively display and even attack it. But if there was no red spot, there was no aggression, even if the model looked realistically like a stickleback. Tinbergen also found that these aggressive FAPs were unchanging from one encounter to another, and once triggered they always ran their course to completion.

Answer 27

There is lots of evidence to support the ethological explanation. For example, Brunner et al. (1993) found that the low-activity variant of the MAOA gene is closely associated with aggressive behaviours, suggesting an innate basis. Additionally, research on the relationship between the limbic system and aggression provides evidence for the existence of innate releasing mechanisms for aggression in the brain in humans and other animals. This supports the validity of the ethological explanation of aggression as the evidence supports its suggestion that aggression is genetically determined, heritable and adaptive [you need to explain how for the study that you have chosen].

Answer 28

Anthropological evidence suggests that the benefits of ritualistic aggression are also present in human cultures. For example, Hoebel (1967) found that among Inuit Eskimos, song duels are used to settle grudges and disputes. This supports that rituals have the effect of reducing actual aggression and preventing injury or death of the combatants as predicted by the ethological explanation, supporting that the results from animals may be generalisable to humans as we are subject to the same forces of natural selection.

Answer 29

Goodall (2010) observed chimpanzees at the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania. During the ‘four year war’, male chimps from one community set about systematically slaughtering all members of another group. They did this in a coordinated and predetermined fashion. On some occasions, a victim was held down by some rival chimpanzees while others hit it and bit it in an attack lasting up to 20 minutes. The violence continued like this despite the fact that victims were offering signals of appeasement and defencelessness. In other species such as lions, males will often kill off the cubs of other males, and male chimpanzees will routinely kill members of their group. The appeasement signals did not inhibit the aggressive behaviour of the attacking chimpanzees as predicted by the ethological explanation and cast doubt on the claim that much of animal aggression is ritualistic rather than real. Additionally, the killing was systematic rather than accidental which goes against the prediction that a defeated animal is ‘rarely’ killed in order to ensure the survival of the wider species and spread the species out over a wider area to reduce competition pressure for resources. Therefore, this calls into question the validity of the ethological explanation as an explanation of aggression.

Answer 30

Nisbett (1993) found that there was a north-south divide in the United States for homicide rates, with killings being much more common amongst white males in southern states than in the northern states. In a lab study, Nisbett et al. (1996) found that when white males from the south were insulted in a research situation, they were more likely than northern white males to become aggressive. Because this was only true of reactive aggression, Nisbett concluded that this difference was due to a ‘culture of honour’ i.e. the aggression is a learned social norm. It is difficult for the ethological explanation, with its view of aggression as instinctive, to explain how culture can override innate influences. This calls into question the validity of the explanation as a complete explanation of aggression.

Answer 31

Ethologists argue that aggression is an innate instinct. An important implication of this view is that humans will inevitably be aggressive and fight each other. Lorenz argued this inevitability was caused by FAPs. [you could then add the determinism argument here]. However, other approaches argue that aggression is not inevitable because it is more under rational control than instinctive. It is also less innate and more affected by learning experiences than ethologists accept. [describe Bandura's findings here to support this]. Hunt (1973) also found that FAPs are greatly influenced by environmental and learning experiences. For instance, an aggressive FAP is typically made up of several behaviours in a series. The duration of each one varies from one individual to another and even in the same individual from one encounter to another. This suggests that whilst the ethological explanation of aggression may have some validity, because it is does not account for learning and cognitive processes influencing aggressive behaviour, it cannot be considered a complete explanation of human aggression. FAPs are much more flexible than Lorenz thought, especially in humans.

Answer 32

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression focus on the adaptive nature of aggression. They suggest that aggression enhanced survival and reproduction and was therefore naturally selected. This means that aggressive genes are passed on to successive generations and so aggressive behaviour becomes more widespread in the population. (Two mark definition of evolutionary explanation) There are a number of evolutionary explanations of aggression: - Competition for resources - Sexual competition - Intimidating or eliminating rivals for females. Sexual jealousy - deterring mates from sexual infidelity.

Answer 33

Sexual jealousy suggests that male aggression (violence) against their partners is motivated by jealousy to ensure their own paternity and genetic success. Unlike women, men can never be certain that they fathered a child. This paternity uncertainty gives rise to the threat of cuckoldry – that the man raises an offspring that is not his own and so contributes to the survival of a rival’s genes and is left with fewer resources to invest in his own offspring in the future. Men in our evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful. So male aggressive strategies evolved (were adaptive) to help them to retain their mates and deter them from sexual infidelity.

Answer 34

Direct guarding (strategies to restrict freedom) – involves male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour e.g. checking where she’s been, who she’s been with, coming home early, installing tracking apps on her mobile etc. Negative inducements (strategies to deter infidelity) – threats of the consequences of infidelity (e.g. “I’ll kill you”) or violence to prevent her from straying.

Answer 35

Therefore, aggression was adaptive in our evolutionary history as it would have made it more likely that males would reproduce successfully by solving the adaptive problems of sexual infidelity and cuckoldry. This means that aggressive genes for males to be aggressive towards their partners are passed on to successive generations and so aggression becomes more widespread in the population.

Answer 36

Aggressive individuals (particularly men) would have been more able to compete (against other men) for resources such as food.

Answer 37

Therefore, aggression enhanced their survival and likelihood of reproducing successfully (especially as women are attracted to men with resources), and so is an adaptive behaviour that is naturally selected to solve the adaptive problem of gaining resources. This means that aggressive genes are passed on to successive generations and so aggression becomes more widespread in the population.

Answer 38

Ancestral men seeking access to females would have had to compete with other males (sexual competition).

Answer 39

Aggressive men would have been more able to compete with other men for access to mates, making it more likely that they would reproduce successfully and so is an adaptive behaviour that is naturally selected to solve the adaptive problem of rivals for females. This means that aggressive genes for males to be aggressive towards other males are passed on to successive generations and so aggression becomes more widespread in the population.

Answer 40

Shackelford et al. (2005) studied intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual couples. Men and women in 107 married couples completed different questionnaires. All of the participants had been married less than one year. The men completed the Mate Retention Inventory, which assessed mate retention behaviours in various categories (e.g. direct guarding). The women completed the Spouse Influence Report, which measured the extent of their partner’s violence in their relationship. There was a strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their partners’ physical violence. According to the researchers, the retention behaviours reliably predicted husbands’ use of violence against their wives. This supports that there is a clear link between the greater risk of infidelity, cuckoldry and aggression because it appears that the males were aggressive as a result of their jealousy in order to avoid cuckoldry. This jealousy seemed to lead to mate retention strategies to deter the infidelity of their partners and is linked to the aggression experienced by the partners. This supports predictions derived from the evolutionary explanations concerning the adaptive value of aggression, as the aggression would ensure the genetic success of the male and so been passed down by natural selection and aggression became more widespread in the population.

Answer 41

An important implication of the research in this area is that mate-retention tactics may be seen as early indicators of potential violence against a female partner. The use of mate-retention tactics can alert friends and family members to the danger signs that might lead to future violence in relationships. Relationship counselling may then be used before the situation escalates to the type of violence seen in research studies. This supports the external validity of the evolutionary explanations of human aggression as they can be used to help to reduce aggression in relationships.

Answer 42

Daly and Wilson (1988) found that many tribal societies bestow increased status and honour to men who have committed murder. Campbell (1993) found that this was also the case in industrialised societies such as the USA. The most violent gang members often have the highest status among their peers. This supports that aggression may have evolved in response to the adaptive problem of access to resources, as individuals who are aggressive gain status and resources and so are more likely to survive and reproduce successfully. This means that aggressive genes are passed down to subsequent generations. As the results are similar in many diverse cultures, this implies that aggression may have evolved rather than being a result of cultural learning, as proposed by the theory.

Answer 43

It is extremely difficult to test hypotheses about the evolution of behaviours to solve problems of adaptation in our evolutionary past. Most of the research is therefore correlational, for example finding relationships between mate retention behaviours and aggression. This does not enable us to draw cause and effect conclusions. Even a very strong correlation between aggressive behaviours and evolutionarily influenced characteristics does not allow us to conclude that sexual jealousy, for instance, causes aggressive behaviour. Because these two variables are just measured and not manipulated, correlational research can never rule out the effects of other factors on aggressive behaviour (cultural differences, for example). Therefore from the research, it is difficult to strongly support the internal validity of the evolutionary explanations of human aggression.

Answer 44

Humans can be incredibly cruel. For example, there was wide-scale slaughter of whole groups in the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Humans will also torture and mutilate their opponents when they have already been defeated and no longer cause a threat. Anthropological evidence suggests that this may be more of a consequence of deindividuation effects than of evolutionary adaptations. This suggests that the evolutionary explanations may not be entirely valid as they cannot explain all instances of human aggression. In this case, if the aggression were to solve the adaptive problems proposed by the theory, the aggression would have stopped after the opponent was defeated and no longer caused a threat to the male's resources or partner's fidelity. This was clearly not the case and so the theory cannot be considered to be completely valid as an explanation of aggression.

Answer 45

The frustration-aggression hypothesis The social learning theory The deindividuation theory

Answer 46

Psychodynamic

Answer 47

When we are prevented from achieving our goals by an external factor, frustration occurs. This creates an aggressive drive, a physiological drive (from the id) that needs release. This then leads to aggressive behaviour. This is cathartic because the aggressive drive created by the frustration is satisfied, which makes further aggression less likely. Aggression can be displaced onto a weaker, non-abstract alternative if the source of the frustration is abstract, too powerful (and so we risk punishment by aggressing against it) or not available. Frustration only creates a readiness for aggression. But the presence of cues in the environment (e.g. a gun) make acting upon this much more likely. Attempt to achieve a goal Obstacle to the goal by an external factor Frustration Aggressive drive Environmental cues Either aggressive behaviour or displaced aggressive behaviour Catharsis

Answer 48

The frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that aggression is out of the control of the individual. The theory proposes that whenever a goal is blocked by an obstacle, frustration occurs and this inevitably leads to aggression (directly or displaced) which is cathartic. This is an example of psychic determinism whereby behaviour is controlled by unconscious factors (such as catharsis) that are beyond our control. This has implications for our legal system as it proposes that aggression is not due to an individual’s free will, and our legal system is based on this assumption. This could lead victims of aggressive crimes to feel that their perpetrators are not taking responsibility for their crimes, and so makes the frustration-aggression hypothesis a less palatable theory of aggressive behaviour.

Answer 49

The frustration-aggression hypothesis has important real-world applications. For example, some states in the USA allow ‘open carry’ where a gun does not have to be concealed. The gun could act as an environmental cue, making aggression more likely in those who are frustrated (and so have an aggressive drive). It should be noted that the open carry does not cause gun violence in itself. Individuals are still responsible for the use of their weapons, even when they are frustrated. However, such knowledge of how the gun acts as an environmental cue is useful as it can be used to contribute towards changes in policies to try to reduce aggression (and particularly gun violence), supporting the external validity of the theory.

Answer 50

There is research evidence to support the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Geen (1968) found that participants who failed to solve a puzzle because they were insulted by a confederate gave the strongest electric shocks to the confederate subsequently, followed by those who failed to solve the puzzle because the confederate interrupted them and then those failed to solve the puzzle because it was impossible. All three groups selected more intense shocks than a non-frustrated group. This suggests that the more the participants were frustrated (due to the obstacle to achieving the goal of completing the puzzle), the more this led to an aggressive drive and its cathartic release through being aggressive (delivering the shocks). This supports the validity of the frustration-aggression hypothesis as an explanation of aggressive behaviour.

Answer 51

Bushman (2002) found that participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punch bag actually became more angry and aggressive rather than less. He found that doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting anger. This outcome is significantly different to that expected by the frustration-aggression hypothesis as participants should have felt the cathartic release of their frustration by punching the bag. As they did not, this casts doubt on the validity of the central assumption of the theory that aggression is cathartic.

Answer 52

A person who carries out (or ‘models’) an attitude or behaviour to be learned. They become this when they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer or are attractive or of a higher status.

Answer 53

The extent to which an individual relates to a role model and feels that they are similar to them, so want to be like a role model e.g. they may both be female, be about the same age, the role model may have something the observer really wants e.g. fame, fortune etc.

Answer 54

This is when a role model precisely demonstrates a specific behaviour so that it can be imitated by an observer

Answer 55

Learning through imitation

Answer 56

Reinforcement that is not directly experienced, but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Answer 57

A type of social learning in which people do a behaviour less often after they've seen someone else behave that same way and experience negative consequences as a result.

Answer 58

Cognitive (mental) processes occur between stimulus (the observation of the role model’s behaviour) and response (imitation) that affect whether the learned behaviour is produced

Answer 59

Noticing and paying attention to the behaviour of the person they want to imitate.

Answer 60

Remembering the behaviour so that they can do the same.

Answer 61

Consideration of our own ability to perform the behaviour.

Answer 62

The will or desire to perform the behaviour (usually linked to vicarious reinforcement).

Answer 63

The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal

Answer 64

Using someone as a model and copying their behaviour. It is sometimes called modelling

Answer 65

Emphasises learning aggression through the observation of a role model that we identify with because of their status or some aspect that we have in common with them e.g. gender or age. The role model models (demonstrates) an aggressive behaviour which the observer then learns (observational learning). If the role model is rewarded for their aggressive behaviour, the observer is more likely to imitate it (vicarious reinforcement). However, learning doesn’t always mean that the observer will imitate the aggressive behaviour (learning and performance are different). Meditational processes (mediating cognitive factors) come between the observation of the aggressive behaviour and imitation of the aggression and will affect whether the aggression will be performed: Attention – the observer must pay attention to the role model’s aggressive actions Retention – the observer must remember the role model’s aggressive actions (form a mental representation) Reproduction – the observer must be able to transform the mental representation into a physical action key note: this means that they are capable of doing it, not that they actually do it. Actually doing it is imitation. Motivation – the observer needs a reason to imitate the behaviour (depends on self-efficacy and vicarious reinforcement) Self-efficacy (the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal) also impacts whether the observer will imitate the role model’s aggression. If the observer is confident that their aggression has been effective in the past, they will continue to be so in the future because it works and they’re good at it.

Answer 66

Bandura et al.’s (1961) Bobo doll study supports social learning theory. Young children individually observed an adult role model assaulting an inflatable plastic toy called a ‘Bobo doll.’ The aggressive behaviours included throwing, kicking, hitting with a mallet and were accompanied by verbal outbursts such as ‘sock him in the nose.’ There followed a short period during which the children were not allowed to play with some attractive toys, which created a degree of frustration. They were then taken to another room where there was a Bobo doll, plus some other toys that the adult role model had used. Without being instructed to do so, many of the children imitated the behaviour they had seen performed by the role model, both physically and verbally. The imitation was very close in some cases, with a virtually direct copy of what the children had observed, including the use of specific objects and verbal phrases. Boys reproduced more imitative physical aggression than girls, but there was no gender difference in the imitation of verbal aggression. There was another group of children who had observed an adult interacting non-aggressively with the doll and the aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll by these children was virtually non-existent.

Answer 67

This supports that the children observed the aggressive behaviour of the role model and imitated it, potentially due to having high self-efficacy and vicarious reinforcement [you need to explain how here]. Therefore, this suggests that the theory is a valid explanation of aggression.

Answer 68

There are significant methodological problems with the Bobo doll studies. A doll is not a living person, and does not retaliate when hit. This raises questions about whether such studies tell us much about the imitation of aggression towards other human beings who do these things. This suggests that the studies may not be entirely valid ways of measuring aggression via social learning and so from such research we cannot strongly support the theory as an explanation of aggression

Answer 69

However, Bandura countered this with a study which had children watch a film of an adult role model hitting a live clown. When the children were subsequently let into the room with the clown, they proceeded to imitate the same aggressive behaviours they had seen in the film. This is better support for the theory because it more validly measures aggression and so supports that the theory is a valid explanation of aggression.

Answer 70

SLT is criticised for underestimating the influence of biological factors. Bandura accepted that there is an urge to be aggressive which is instinctive, but that aggression is primarily learned. There is evidence to suggest that this may not be the case and that evolutionary, neural and hormonal mechanisms influence aggression. [you then need to select evidence from lessons 1-4 to support the idea that biology is important in aggression]Social Learning Theory barely acknowledges these influences and certainly doesn't explain them. As such, SLT is an incomplete explanation of aggression as it cannot explain all cases of aggression (where biological factors are needed to do so).

Answer 71

Children readily imitate role models when they observe them being rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) for their actions (including aggressive ones), especially when they identify with them. Huesmann and Eron (2013) argue that media portrayals of aggressive behaviour can be powerful influences on a child’s acquisition of aggression. This is especially true if a character is rewarded for being aggressive, and if the child is able to identify with the character in some way (e.g. they have desirable characteristics like popularity). Under these conditions, vicarious reinforcement experienced by the children observing the violent behaviour by media characters may be just as influential in encouraging imitate as it is in real life. Therefore, one way to reduce aggression is to provide rewarded non-aggressive role models. The same process of social learning can then produce non-aggression e.g. Encouraging children to form friendships with children rewarded for non-aggression gives them more opportunities to observe modelled non-aggressive behaviour. The knowledge of SLT's influence on aggression has led to the development of programmes to try to modify aggression. For example, the ACT Against Violence is an intervention programme that aims to educate parents and others about the dangers of providing aggressive role models and to encourage parents to provide more positive role models instead. Weymouth and Howe (2011) found that after completing the programme, parents demonstrated increases in positive parenting and discontinuation of physical punishment. This supports the theory’s external validity because this real-world application confirms the relevance of social learning concepts, such as role models, vicarious reinforcement and modelling [you would need to explain how here]. This supports the power of social learning in explaining aggression as it can be used effectively to decrease it, supporting its external validity.

Answer 72

Different cultures have different norms about which behaviours should be reinforced. In some cultures such as the !Kung San of the Kalahari desert, direct reinforcement of children’s aggression is unlikely because social norms do not encourage it, and parents tend not to use it to discipline their children. This also means that role models of aggression are unavailable for children to observe, and certainly vicarious reinforcement is a rare experience. Social learning theory can therefore generally explain cultural differences in behaviour. This is because children imitate the behaviours they observe being reinforced (e.g. Very little aggression in the !Kung San tribe), regardless of the culture in which the behaviours occur, suggesting the theory has external validity. However, social learning theory would have some difficulty in explaining that there is some displays of aggressive behaviour among the !Kung San. The theory predicts that an absence of aggressive models should result in very little aggressive behaviour being imitated. The fact that people do behave aggressively in !Kung San society suggests that there is more to aggressive behaviour than social learning and so it cannot explain all instances of aggression. Perhaps it is instinctive and therefore a biological explanation would be more appropriate to explain this particular cultural finding [again you would need some evidence to back up that biology can play a role in aggression here].

Answer 73

A loss of self-identity and personal responsibility

Answer 74

Our own beliefs and feelings

Answer 75

Accountability, caring how others see us

Answer 76

Alcohol Uniform Crowds

Answer 77

Normally, we are in an individuated state so are constrained by social norms (not aggressive) --> Increase in anonymity --> Loss of public self-awareness and loss of private self-awareness --> Deindividuation --> Responsibility is shared throughout the group (group identity) so more aggression and Behaviour is less constrained by social norms (more aggressive) (Include definitions when explaining the explanations and the end how it leads to aggression)

Answer 78

Dodd (1985): He asked 229 undergraduate psychology students in 13 classes this question: ‘if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?’ The students were aware that their responses were completely anonymous. Three independent raters who did not know the hypothesis decided which categories of antisocial behaviour the responses belonged to. Findings: 36% of participants suggested some form of anti-social behaviour. 26 students suggested a criminal act, of which robbing a bank was the most common. 9% suggested a prosocial behaviour. This is because the anonymity means that people lose their private self-awareness (less self-critical and evaluative) and public self-awareness (feel less judged by others and accountable for actions). This leads to deindividuation (lose their self-identity and personal responsibility) so they feel less constrained by social norms and so propose doing aggressive behaviours. Therefore this suggests that the theory is valid. Zimbardo (1969): Groups of four female undergraduates were required to deliver electric shocks to another student to ‘aid learning.’ Half of the participants wore bulky lab coats and hoods that hid their faces, sat in separate cubicles and were never referred to by name. The other participants wore their normal clothes, were given large name tags and were introduced to each other by name. They were also able to see each other when seated at the shock machines. Findings: Participants in the hooded condition were more likely to press the button that they believed would shock another person and held down the button for twice as long as the identifiable participants. This is because the anonymity means that people lose their private self-awareness (less self-critical and evaluative) and public self-awareness (feel less judged by others and accountable for actions). This leads to deindividuation (lose their self-identity and personal responsibility) so they feel less constrained by social norms and so are more aggressive. Therefore this suggests that the theory is valid.

Answer 79

Deindividuation theory can help us to understand aggressive behaviour online, including online gaming services such as Xbox Live. These services have many features that promote a psychological state of deindividuation. There is a reduction of personal identity, with players using ‘handles’ to identify themselves; game-playing in such an environment is arousing and immersive; there is the presence of a ‘crowd’ in the form of a (potentially worldwide) audience. Douglas and McGarty (2001) found a strong correlation between anonymity and 'flaming' (posting hostile messages). Trolling and bullying (cyberbullying) are increasingly common online behaviours. This can be discriminatory in its more extreme forms. For example, women and girls, people with disabilities, gay people and people from ethnic minorities can be bullied particularly harshly. There are some features of online communication that de-individuate its users. Online anonymity in particular makes cyberbullying more widespread [you need to explain how here using the flow diagram] and potentially harmful. It means that bullies are unaccountable for what they post because they are very unlikely to face any consequences for their behaviour. But even when posting under real identities online communication can be de-individuated because it is communication ‘at a distance’ rather than face-to-face. It is also much easier to communicate aggressively in writing rather than by voice. You have time to compose what you want to say, without having to listen to others. This supports the external validity of the theory as it has important real-world applications in explaining online aggression.

Answer 80

Institutional aggression is aggressive or violent behaviour that takes place within a formal organised setting or context, such as a prison.

Answer 81

Any reason for behaviour that highlights the importance of the individual’s characteristics/personality (disposition) rather than any aspect of the situation they are in i.e. internal.

Answer 82

Any reason for behaviour that highlights the importance of the environment in which the behaviour occurs (including other people) rather than any aspect of the individual’s characteristics/personality i.e. external.

Answer 83

Dispositional

Answer 84

Situational

Answer 85

Irwin and Cressey (1962) suggested the importation model. This claims that inmates who enter prison bring with them a subculture of criminality and so are more likely to engage in interpersonal violence (aggression). Inmates import (bring in) aggressive behaviours into prison as a means of negotiating their way through the unfamiliar and frightening prison environment in which existing inmates use aggression to establish power, status, influence and access to resources. According to this theory, aggression is not a product of the situation itself, but rather of the characteristics of individuals who enter such institutions i.e. People who are aggressive, angry, bully outside of prison will bring these behaviours into the prison with them and so be aggressive. This importation also includes violent values, attitudes, norms and a history of learning experiences, as well as other personal characteristics such as gender, ethnicity and class that inmates bring into the prison with them which may influence aggression (these are called mediating factors). For instance, Black prisoners are thought to enter prison from more impoverished backgrounds with higher rates of violent crime. The willingness of inmates to use violence inside prison to settle disputes reflects their lives before they were imprisoned.

Answer 86

The deprivation model was proposed by Clemmer (1958). This model claims that it is the characteristics of the prison itself that accounts for prison violence. Theorists who subscribe to this model do not deny the possibility that inmates enter prisons with certain cultural norms that are more or less permissive of violence. However, they argue that it is primarily the harsh experience of imprisonment that causes inmates extreme stress and frustration, who have to cope by resorting to aggressive behaviour. In prison, there are specific deprivations (things that inmates lose) that might be linked to an increase in violence towards other inmates or prison staff. These include loss of freedom, loss of independence, loss of goods and services, loss of safety, loss of heterosexual intimacy, loss of personal space from overcrowding, boredom, discomfort, loneliness and high temperatures. According to the model, as inmates experience these ‘pains’ of imprisonment, they engage in violence as a reaction to the hurt that they feel. Deprivation of material goods also increases competition amongst inmates which is then linked to aggression. However, it should be noted that others may choose to deal with the ‘pains’ in other ways e.g. withdrawing through seclusion in their cell or living space. Aggression is also influenced by the nature of the prison regime. If it is unpredictable and regularly uses ‘lock ups’ to control behaviour, this creates frustration, reduces stimulation by barring other more interesting activities and reduces even further access to ‘goods’ (e.g. television). This then leads to aggression as a means of dealing with the frustration.

Answer 87

Importation model better at explaining violence between inmates and the deprivation model (situational) is better at explaining violence towards prison staff

Answer 88

Interactionist approach

Answer 89

In the early 1990s, Prison Governor David Wilson reasoned that if the deprivation model is valid, reducing the temperature, noise and crowding of HMP Woodhill should reduce institutional aggression. Wilson set up two units for violent prisoners that were less claustrophobic and ‘prison-like’ and gave a view to the outside. The typical noise associated with prison life was reduced and masked by music from a local radio station. Temperature was lowered so it wasn’t stiflingly hot. These changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and other inmates (Wilson, 2010). This provides powerful support for the claim that situational variables are the main cause of aggression due to the cause and effect established between changing these variables and the reduction in institutional aggression. Therefore, this supports the internal validity of the deprivation model because when the environment was changed, the prisoners experienced fewer losses (e.g. They didn't lose personal space, or experience hot temperatures) and so were in less 'pain' and so less likely to respond to this with aggression. Additionally, it supports the external validity of the model as it suggests that we can apply the model to the real-world to reduce rates of institutional aggression so that all prisoners experience fewer losses, less 'pain' and therefore are less likely to respond to this with aggression. However, due to the ethical implications of the research (e.g. victims and society feeling that perpetrators are not sufficiently ‘punished’ for their crimes), it is unlikely that these changes will become widespread in prisons, limiting the utility of the findings of the research.

Answer 90

Camp and Gaes (2005) They studied 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and predispositions to aggression. Half were randomly placed in a low-security Californian prison and half were randomly placed in a high-security prison. Within two years, there was no significant difference between prisons in the number of prisoners involved in violent misconduct (33% and 36%). Supports importation model because it suggests that the inmates bring in (import) the aggressive behaviour with them as seen through their similar criminal histories and predispositions to aggression. Therefore they are aggressive to negotiate their way through the unfamiliar and frightening prison environment, suggesting the model is valid. Undermines deprivation model because if the prison environment was responsible for aggression, the high security prison should have resulted in greater losses and therefore more 'pains' of imprisonment. As such, they should have been more likely to respond to these pains with aggression than those in the low security prison who had fewer losses (and so less pain). As this wasn't the case, this suggests that the theory isn't a completely valid explanation of institutional aggression

Answer 91

Communication channels through which news, entertainment and data are made available

Answer 92

Changes in behaviour (aggression) that are attributed to exposure to media. Key note: when defining this, you will need to include the definition of media.

Answer 93

A game generally played on-screen using a keyboard, mouse or other controller. Types include simulations, first-person shooters, adventures, sports and role-playing games, often conducted using an online service.

Answer 94

Procedure: They replicated their Bobo doll study but instead of the role model being live, the children watched a film of the adult role model being aggressive towards the Bobo doll. Results: They found very similar results to the original experiment with children imitating the aggressive behaviour of the role model (and also of a cartoon version). Conclusion: This suggests that children learn aggressive behaviour via social learning that occurs via the media as well as face-to-face.

Answer 95

Procedure: This study examined how playing a violent video game affected levels of aggression displayed in a laboratory. A total of 43 undergraduate students (22 men and 21 women) were randomly assigned to play either a violent (Mortal Kombat) or nonviolent (PGA Tournament Golf) video game for 10 minutes. Then they competed with a confederate in a reaction time task (called the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task or TCRTT) that allowed for provocation and retaliation. This blasts white noise at volumes chosen to by the winner to punish the opponent. Punishment levels set by participants for their opponents served as the measure of aggression. Results: Those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels (5.97 decibels) compared with non-violent players (4.6 decibels). This effect was larger for men than for women. They concluded that violent video games lead to more aggressive behaviour.

Answer 96

Procedure: They studied 277 juvenile offenders, all with histories of serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher/parent/gang fighting. Using structured interviews, they gathered data on several measures of aggression and violent computer game-playing. Results: They found that the offenders’ aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them. They argued that aggression should be a public health issue like HIV/AIDS.

Answer 97

Experimental studies allow us to establish a causal link between media aggression and aggressive behaviour, supporting the internal validity of the suggestion that the media influences aggression

Answer 98

However, the measures of aggression in a laboratory are often accused of being unrealistic and artificial, such as the use of the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task which measures how much loud noise is selected, which is not like typical aggression that would occur after playing a computer game ordinarily. Additionally, the aggression does not involve any fear of retaliation like there would be in the real world Therefore, the studies can only measure the short-term effects of media influences on aggression, and not in a way that is externally valid. This implies that from the research, it is difficult to support the causal link between media aggression and real-life aggression as the studies cannot measure aggression in a way that it occurs in outside of the laboratory setting. This can be overcome by longitudinal studies to observe real-life patterns of behaviour, but in such studies participants may be exposed to other forms of media violence or other sources of violence in real life, meaning that the effect of one particular form of media on aggression would be uncertain.

Answer 99

It is frequently claimed that it is the violent content of video games that creates feeling of aggression in players which then spills over into aggressive behaviour in their own lives. However, research suggests that this may not be the case. Przybylski et al. (2014) had players play either Marathon 2 (a violent first-person shooter game) or Glider Pro 4 (where a player flies a paper aeroplane). They found that it was not the storyline or imagery, but the lack of mastery and difficulty players had in completing the game that led to frustration and aggression. This was evident across both violent and non-violent games (i.e. Both games led to aggression). This suggests that aggressive behaviour may be linked to a player’s experience of failure and frustration during a game rather than the game’s violent storyline (for the very top marks explain this using the frustration-aggression hypothesis). Therefore, our understanding of the link between computer games and aggression is too simplistic by suggesting that violent video games cause aggression because of their violent nature, as even non-violent games can lead to aggression if they are poorly designed or too difficult.

Answer 100

Whilst correlational studies allow us to investigate realistic forms of aggression, we cannot draw causal conclusions from them because no variables are manipulated and there is no random allocation of participants to violent or non-violent media conditions. Therefore, a positive correlation between viewing or playing of violent media and aggressive behaviour could be because aggressive media causes people to become more aggressive or because people who are already aggressive select aggressive media. The directional of causality cannot be settled by correlational studies and as such from this evidence we cannot strongly support the internal validity of the suggestion that the media influences aggressive behaviour.

Answer 101

Granic and Lobel (2013) found that playing violent shooter games can improve a player’s capacity to think about objects in 3D, develop problem-solving skills and enhance creativity. This suggests that playing violent computer games does not always have anti-social consequences (aggression) and that playing such games could have important implications for education and career development, as research has established the power of spatial skills for achievement in STEM subjects.

Answer 102

Many studies of media influences on aggression fail to account for other variables that explain why some people display aggressive behaviour and why those same people may choose to play violent video games. For example, Ferguson et al. (2009) found that the effects of violent media content on aggressive behaviour disappears when other potential influences such as trait aggression, family violence and mental health are taken into consideration. This suggests that these other risk factors, rather than exposure to media violence, are the primary causes of aggressive behaviour. As such, the research may not be able to strongly support the validity of the proposal that media influences lead to aggressive behaviour.

Answer 103

Repeated exposure to media violence --> Reduced physiological arousal associated with SNS (so heart rate doesn't increase as much, don't sweat as much etc\) i.e. less physiologically anxious and reduced psychological arousal e.g. belief that aggression is socially acceptable, less empathy for victims, injuries minimised or dismissed, less negative attitudes towards violence --> Aggression is more likely

Answer 104

Weisz and Earls (1995) showed their participants the film Straw Dogs, which contains a prolonged and graphic scene of rape. Participants then watched a re-enactment of a trial. Their results were compared to those who watched a non-sexually violent film. Compared to those who watched a non-sexually violent film, male viewers of Straw Dogs showed a greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression, expressed less sympathy towards the rape victim in the trial and were less likely to find the defendant guilty. There was no such effect of film type on female participants. This supports predictions made by desensitisation. Participants who are exposed to violent media show reduced psychological arousal associated with anxiety [give specific examples here], supporting the validity of desensitisation as an explanation of media influences on aggression. [You can note here that it doesn't actually demonstrate that they become more aggressive].

Answer 105

Desensitisation can be adaptive for individuals. For example, desensitisation to the horrors of combat can make troops more effective in their role. However, desensitisation to violent stimuli may also be detrimental for both the individual and society. Bushman and Anderson (2009) found that violent media exposure can reduce helping behaviour that might otherwise be offered to others in distress. They claim that people exposed to media violence become ‘comfortably numb’ to the pain and suffering of others and are consequently less helpful. This suggests that there are important implications for society of desensitisation through media violence, in that society will become more accepting of pain of others, potentially making aggression more likely, supporting the external validity of the theory as an explanation of media influences on aggression. If we accept this, there are then important implications for society in order to try to counteract this, for instance through media regulation of aggressive programmes. This could lead to decreased aggression, but whether this would occur is unlikely given that people have the right to choose what they watch and don't watch.

Answer 106

Goranson (1969) showed participants a film of a boxing match where there were two alternate endings. In one ending, there were no apparent consequences. In the 2nd ending, the loser of the fight was seen to take a bad beating and die. Participants who did not see the negative consequences were more likely to behave aggressively after viewing the fight than were those who did see the consequences. This supports that disinhibition may be more likely in violent media where the negative consequences are not made apparent or are not understood by viewers as this makes aggressive behaviour seem more socially acceptable (new social norms) weakening the restraints against being aggressive, making it more likely to occur. This suggests it is a valid explanation of media influences on aggression.

Answer 107

The likelihood of disinhibition taking place is determined by a number of factors. For example, younger children are more likely to be affected because they are more likely to be drawn into high-action violent episodes without considering the motives or consequences of the violence. Additionally, children who grow up in households with strong norms against violence are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition for them to exhibit aggressive behaviour even when they are exposed to violent media. This suggests that the relationship between media violence and disinhibition is not a straightforward one, and is mediated by a number of individual and social characteristics. As such, it is unlikely that disinhibition alone can explain media influences on aggression.

Answer 108

Repeatedly seeing violent media creates an aggressive schema that is stored in memory --> When we are exposed to aggressive images or cues in the media (priming stimuli) the schema is triggered --> We have greater access to the aggressive thoughts and ideas in the schema --> This activates other aggressive thoughts in memory --> When we are exposed to priming in situations we perceive to be aggressive, it triggers the schema leading us to be aggressive --> This can be specific (the same aggressive act as viewed) or more general (tendency to generally be more aggressive)

Answer 109

Fischer and Greitmeyer (2006) looked at the priming of aggressive scripts in memory by investigating a neglected form of media violence – song lyrics. Male participants listened to songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women. Compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, participants subsequently recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. This procedure was replicated with female participants using ‘men-hating’ song lyrics, with similar results. This supports that the exposure to the derogatory lyrics acted as priming stimuli, making participants ready to be aggressive, as it led to more aggressive thoughts (which is why they remember more negative things about her). This then led to their aggressive behaviour towards the female confederate. This supports the validity of the explanation of how the media influences aggression.

Answer 110

Atkin (1983) found that higher levels of aggression resulted from the viewing of more realistic or realistically perceived violence. The fictional violence in some computer games, may not have the same priming effects as in games with more realistic violence This suggests that exposure to more realistic or intense forms of media aggression (compared with cartoon or animated forms of aggression) might influence the types and intensity of activated thoughts and ideas, which may then manifest themselves in different ways. Consequently, this suggests that the cognitive priming explanation may not be able to explain aggression from all forms of aggressive media, only more realistic ones, and therefore it may not be an entirely valid explanation of how media violence influences aggression.

Answer 111

Repeated exposure to violent media weakens the restraints (inhibitions) —> Aggression appears normative, socially sanctioned (especially if seems justified, victims pain is minimised, violence is rewarded or not punished) —> Aggression is temporality socially acceptable (new social norms) making aggression more likely