Approaches Flashcards
Behaviourism Learning Approach (A01)
Assumptions (AO1):
.All behaviors are learnt from our environment.
.Focus on observable behavior (behavior that can be seen).
.Animals and humans learn in the same ways so behaviorists carry out experiments on animals and extrapolate the results to humans.
.Psychology should be scientific and objective therefore behaviorists use mainly laboratory experiments to achieve this.
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.
Pavlov Dogs
First the dogs were presented with the food, they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.
Then Pavlov sounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. After a few pairings the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even when no food was given. The bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned response.
The dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food and the sound of the bell and salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell.
Operant conditioning
Skinner argued that learning is an active process. When humans and animals act on and in their environment consequences follow these behaviors. If the consequences are pleasant they repeat the behavior but if the consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the behavior.
Operant reinforcements:
Positive reinforcement: is receiving a reward.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant happening. For example in one of Skinner’s experiment a rat had to press a lever to stop receiving an electric shock.
Punishment: this is an unpleasant consequence. For example being grounded for not doing your psychology homework.
The Skinner Box (1953)
A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box
This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subjected to an uncomfortable electrical current as he moved around the cage the rat hit the lever, this immediately switched off the electrical current (negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
This suggests that negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
Positive Behaviourism Evaluation AO3
Behaviorism has experimental support: Pavlov showed that classical conditioning leads to learning by association. Watson and Rayner showed that phobias can be learnt through classical conditioning in the “little Albert” experiment.
It introduced the scientific methods to psychology. Laboratory experiments were used with high control of extraneous variables. These experiments were replicable and the data obtained was objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgement or opinion) and measurable. This gave psychology more credibility.
It has practical applications for example systematic desensitisation based on classical conditioning is used in the treatment of phobias. Classical and operant conditioning have also been used to explain attachment.
Negatives Behaviourism Evaluation AO3
Many of the experiments carried out were done on animals; we are different cognitively and physiologically, humans have different social norms and moral values these mediate the effects of the environment therefore we might behave differently from animals so the laws and principles derived from these experiments might apply more to animals than to humans.
It does not explain important aspects of human behavior such as memory and problem solving as these are internal mental events which cannot be observed.
It does not take into account biological factors such as the role of neurotransmitters, for example a low level of serotonin can give rise to depression or high level of dopamine is involved in OCD.
It neglects the influence of free will as it argues that our behavior is the result of previous conditioning. Skinner argues that free will is an illusion.
Social Learning Theory
Bandura agreed with the behaviorists that behavior is learnt through experience however he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning. He argued that we learn through observation and imitation of others’ behavior.
This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental processes involved in learning so it is not a pure behaviorist theory.
Stages of the Social Learning Theory (AO1)
Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior.
Retention: Storing the observed behavior in LTM where it can stay for a long period of time. Imitation is not always immediate.
Reproduction: The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to reproduce the observed behavior.
Motivation: Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcements (vicarious reinforcement) for imitating the observed behavior that they have seen the model receiving.
The Bobo doll study - Bandura et al. (1961) (Method)
It was a lab experiment. Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6 years old .
Group 1: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model hitting the doll with a hammer and shouting at the doll.
Group 2: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model shown a non-aggressive model.
Group 3: 12 girls and 12 boys (control group) were not shown a model.
Then the children were taken to a room with some attractive toys but were told not to play with the toys (aggression arousal).
Then the children were taken individually in a room containing a bobo doll, non-aggressive toys like pencils and plastic farm animals and aggressive toys like a hammer and a pistol.
The Bobo doll study (Results and Conclusion)
Results:
The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups. Group 1 imitated specific aggressive acts that were displayed by the model. Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.
Conclusion:
This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behavior of role model even if the
behavior is aggressive.
Bandura and Walters (1963) (Method)
The bobo doll experiment was repeated, but this time the three groups were exposed to an aggressive model and saw different consequences for the model:
Group 1: the model was praised
Group 2: the model was punished (told off)
Group 3: no consequences for the aggressive behavior
Bandura and Walters (1963) (Results and Conclusion)
Results:
When left on their own to play the children in group 1 showed the most aggression followed by group 3. Group 2 was the least aggressive.
Conclusion:
This shows that imitation is more likely to occur when the model is positively reinforced, demonstrating the importance of vicarious reinforcement.
Evaluation of Social learning Theory
— Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment ignores the biological differences between boys and girls = Social learning theory suggests that we learn from experience, and so ignores other biological or psychological factors, thus adopting environmental determinism. However, Bandura ignored the finding that 4“boys, in relation to girls, exhibited significantly more imitative aggression, more aggressive gun play, and more nonimitative aggressive behaviour”. This may be explained due to boys having higher levels of the hormone testosterone, which has been linked to increased aggressiveness. Therefore, this suggests that SLT may not be a complete explanation for gender differences in behaviour, due to not accounting for the biological and hormonal differences between the sexes.
— Demand characteristics in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment = Bandura’s study may lack internal validity, due to not entirely investigating the effect of aggressive role models because the Bobo doll is specifically designed to be hit. The study may also lack mundane realism because it may not represent or measure how children would be aggressive in day-to-day situations, perhaps towards objects or people that are not meant to be struck. Therefore, participants may have deliberately acted more aggressively towards the doll in order to please the experimenter (the ‘Please-U effect’). This reduces the generalisability of the findings.
+ Acknowledges the role of human cognition = Human cognitive and decision-making processes may be considered as more complex than that of animals. SLT has the advantage, over behaviourism, that it recognises the role of mediational processes as the conscious and cognitive insight that humans have into their behaviour. Therefore, SLT may be a better explanation of human behaviour, compared to behaviourism.
