Approach in psychology

Question 1

Origins of Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt + introspection

Answer 1

− First ‘psychologist’
− Used introspection (The process of “looking inward” and examining one’s self and one’s own actions in order to gain insight) in controlled environments, he provided patients with e.g. a visual image and asked them to provide a description of their inner processes
− Compare patient’s responses to generate theories
− Eval: Unreliable – based primarily on no observable responses + results were not reproducible

Question 2

Origins of Psychology: The emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 2

− Methods uses to conduct research tend to be empirical (research conducted, and conclusions reached, by means of observation and documentation)
− Knowledge and understanding comes from observation and experience alone, should be based on evidence
− Key assumptions of the scientific approach:
→ All behavior is caused by something
→ As behavior is caused, once we know the cause, we should be able to predict behavior in that situation
− The scientific method:
→ Objective –
→ Systematic –
→ Replicable –

− Eval:
→ reliable – knowledge acquired more than just the passive acceptance of facts
→ reduce ecological validity – using controlled environments means that the tests and research are artificial and not similar to the real world, reduce ability to generalise

Question 3

Behaviourism/learning approaches: Key approaches

Answer 3

− All behaviour is learnt and we learn through experience
− Study observable behaviour – not interested in thought processes
− We are born as ‘blank slates’

Question 4

Behaviourism/learning approaches: Classical conditioning

Answer 4

− Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – something that unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response
− Unconditioned response (UCR) – the unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the UCS
− Neutral stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that does not produce an automatic response
− Conditioned stimulus (CS) – a stimulus that was previously a neutral stimulus and after having been associated with the UCS eventually come to trigger a CR (same as the UCR to the UCS)
− Conditioned response (CR) – the learned response to the previously neutral, now conditioned, stimulus

Question 5

Behaviourism/learning approaches: CC - Pavlov

Answer 5

− Pavlov was investigating the workings of the digestive system
− Procedure: he had a dog harnessed to a bench with a tube coming out if its mouth and going into a jar, Pavlov realised that the dog would salivate more when it heard the sound of the door
− Findings:
→ Stimulus generalisation – he discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS
→ Timing (NS and UCS association) – if the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. time interval in between = too large) then conditioning doesn’t take place
→ Extinction – the CR doesn’t become permanently established, after a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS it loses its ability to produce the CR
→ Spontaneous recovery – following the extinction, if the CS and UCS are paired again the link is made much more quickly

Question 6

Behaviourism/learning approaches: Operant conditioning

Answer 6

− Reinforcement – anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood it will occur again in the future
− Positive reinforcement – favourable event or outcome presented after the behaviour, the behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something
− Negative reinforcement – a response is strengthened by the removal of something unpleasant
− Positive punishment – pentation of an unfavourable event or outcome following an undesirable behaviour, the behaviour is weakened and decreased
− Negative punishment – the removal of a desired item or outcome, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again

Question 7

Behaviourism/learning approaches: OC - Skinner

Answer 7

− Procedure: skinners box contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute, loudspeakers and lights acted as visual cues and the floor was metal so that an electric shock could be administered. Rats were placed in skinners box.
→ Pellet = positive reinforcement
→ Electrified floor = positive punishment
→ Avoidance of the floor = negative reinforcement
− Findings: as soon as a rat learned that it would get a pellet when pressing the lever, it would keep doing so – behaviour was positively reinforced. Rat learns it will be rewarded with a pellet every time it presses the lever – continuous reinforcement

Question 8

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach: CC led to the treatment of phobias :)

Answer 8

P: classical conditioning has led to the treatment of anxiety and phobias – systematic desensitisation (SD)
E: SD relies of the same principles as CC + aims to replace original association between object + fear to the association of relaxation
C: principles of the approach have led to a therapy effective and capable of improving people’s lives

Question 9

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach: Reliance on scientific methods :)

Answer 9

P: reliance of scientific method(s)
E: experiments use controlled conditions + objective methods – cause and effect relationship can be established as researcher can understand cause of behaviour
C: therapy can be said to be supported by sound evidence

Question 10

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach: Doesn’t acknowledge thoughts :(

Answer 10

P: behaviourist approach doesn’t acknowledge the role of thoughts in out behaviour
E: most psychologists acknowledge thoughts so play a part in our behaviour but behaviourists are only concerned with observable phenomena
C: theory = too simplistic

Question 11

Evaluation of the behaviourist approach: Reliance on animal studies

Answer 11

P: reliance on experiments using non-human animals
E: skinner + Pavlov used rats/dogs in to test their theories
C: human learning may be a more complex process comparatively meaning evidence may not apply to humans

Question 12

Behaviourism/learning approaches: Social learning theory

Answer 12

− Modelling – learning vicariously by observation and imitation
− Imitation – to copy a models behaviour with the hope of receiving the same consequences
− Identification – the subject assimilates an aspect, property or attribute of the other and is transformed wholly or partly by the model the other provides
− Vicarious reinforcement – tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviours others are rewarded for
− The role of the mediational process – occurs between observing the behaviour and imitating it or not, there are 4 mediational processes: attention, retention, reproduction + motivation

Question 13

Behaviourism/learning approaches: SLT Bandura

Answer 13

− Procedures:
→ 36 male + 36 female participants, average age 4 years
→ children observed models behaviour in a toy room containing some aggressive toys, e.g. mallet + dart gun, some non-aggressive, e.g. dolls, + a 3ft bobo doll
→ two conditions (+ 1 control): non aggressive – the model played with the toys in a quiet manner + aggressive condition – aggressive towards the bobo doll, laying it on its side + sitting + punching it, striking it with a mallet and shouting abuse etc.
→ children taken to a similar toy room and observed and behaviours recorded for 20mins using the measures: imitation of physical aggression, imitation of verbal aggression, imitation of non-aggressive verbal responses + non imitative physical + verbal aggression
− Findings: children who had observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively + imitation was seen in both specific acts + in general levels of their behaviour. Boys acted more aggressively than girls + there was a greater level of imitation between same sex models (identification)
− Conclusion: learning can take place in the absence of either classical or operant conditioning – the children imitated the behaviour in the absence of any reward

Question 14

Behaviourism/learning approaches: SLT Bandura evaluation

Answer 14

→ :( short term effects – doesn’t show whether the behaviours were retained
→ :( ethical issues – testing on children who can’t properly consent + teaching them violence

Question 15

The biological approach key assumptions

Answer 15

− Views humans as biological organisms
− Explains human behaviour in term of physical factors:
→ Genetics – behaviour is inherited, recognising the process of evolution
→ The central nervous system (brain + spinal cord) – explains behaviour in terms of the physical structure + functioning of the brain
→ Biochemistry – chemicals found in the brain (neurotransmitters) + body (hormones) are believed to influence reactions to the environment

Question 16

The influences of genes on behaviour (the biological approach)

Answer 16

− Hereditary – something that is passes on through generations, hereditability – the proportion of the characteristics that is seen as genetic
− BA emphasises the importance of genetic inheritance e.g. geneticists assume that IQ is partially genetically determined
− Genotype – the genetic code that is written into out DNA, it can determine physical factors e.g. hair + eye colour
− Phenotype – the observable characteristics of an individual which may reflect the interaction between the genetic code (genotype) and the environment
− Individuals are born with 23 pairs of chromosomes = our genotype + provide the genetic basis for our development + behaviour
− Often research into the effect for genes uses twins
→ MZ twins – have the same gene (one egg splits in two)
→ DZ twins – share only 50% of their genes (two eggs fertilised by two sperm)
→ Twins are compared to see what characteristic are more genetic than others i.e. if a characteristic is genetic MZ twins will both have it
→ Concordance rate – the presents of the same trait in both members of twins

Question 17

The influence of biological structures on behaviour (the biological approach)

Answer 17

− Neurons – nerve cell that transfers information between the nervous system, vary according to their job: sensory, relay + motor neurons
− The nervous system
→ Central nervous system (CNS) – includes the brain + spinal cord
→ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – supports the CNS, consists of the somatic + autonomic nervous system
− The brain
→ Cerebrum – largest part of the brain, split into two hemispheres + hemisphere divided into 4 lobes
→ Cerebral cortex – surface of the cerebrum, responsible for ‘higher order’ functions

Question 18

The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour (the biological approach)

Answer 18

− The study of chemicals + natural processes with the nervous system
− Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers within the cerebral brain fluid
→ Excitatory neurotransmitters – trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron + stimulate the brain into action e.g. dopamine
→ Inhibitory neurotransmitters – inhibit nerve impulses to calm the brain + balance mood e.g. serotonin
− Hormones - A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs, released from endocrine glands + travel through the blood stream to their ‘target cells’

Question 19

Evaluation of the biological approach: Scientific methods :)

Answer 19

P: uses scientific methods + objective evidence
E: using measures which are largely objective + precise e.g. brain scanning (PET, fMRI etc.) + measuring biochemical levels, shows biological causes can be linked to psychological symptoms e.g. dopamine levels in schizophrenia
C: experimental methods take place in highly controlled environments, enabling other research’s to replicate research studies under the same conditions to check the reliability of the findings

Question 20

Evaluation of the biological approach: Practical applications :)

Answer 20

P: it has practical applications
E: drugs could be developed that might help to address the symptoms of psychological disorders e.g. antidepressants
C: therefore can greatly improve people’s lives

Question 21

Evaluation of the biological approach: Reductionist :(

Answer 21

P: reductionist – some of the explanations are too simplistic
E: they reduce human behaviour down into its smallest component parts e.g. genes + hormones
C: fails to recognise the complexity of hum behaviour + the role of other factors in behaviour e.g. upbringing, cognitive, cultural + emotional factors

Question 22

Evaluation of the biological approach: Doesn’t blame people for their psychological problems :)

Answer 22

P: doesn’t blame people for their psychological problems
E: as abnormalities are due to inherited genetics
C: leads to more humane treatment of the mentally ill

Question 23

Evaluation of the biological approach: Cause + effect :(

Answer 23

P: problems with cause + effect
E: even if we know which part of the brain is active + how much activity there is we can never be absolutely sure how brain activity relates to behaviour
C: does brain activity cause behaviour or does the behaviour cause brain activity

Question 24

The cognitive approach key assumptions

Answer 24

− Refer to thought processes to explain behaviour
− Compares the mind to a computer + uses an information processing model
− Thought processes should be studied scientifically
− Studies mental processes e.g. memory, perception, thinking + language
− Cannot directly see processes e.g. thinking but we can infer based on behaviour
− Information received from our 4 senses are processed by the brain + this processing directs the way we behave

Question 25

The study of internal metal processes (the cognitive approach)

Answer 25

− CA studies information processing i.e. the way we deal with information from our environment or experiences
− Thought processes cannot be studied directly because it is non observable, therefore they must be studied indirectly + inferences are made about what cognitive processes have occurred based on the result behaviour

Question 26

The role of schemas (the cognitive approach)

Answer 26

− Schema – a collection of ideas about a person or situation form through experience which helps an individual to understand + predict the world around them
− Allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting they vast amount of information that is available in our environment
− Can lead to distortion – cause us to exclude important information, instead only focus on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas

Question 27

KEY STUDY: Brewer and Treyens (schemas - the cognitive approach)

Answer 27

− Procedure: 30 university students arrived individually to the lab + asked to wait in an office containing objects which did and didn’t fit the schema. Taken out of the room + asked to write down everything they could remember from the room
− Findings: most participants recalled the schematic objects e.g. desk + typewriter, some report thing expected in an office but weren’t present. Many recalled the skull – non predicted by the schema
− Conclusion: confirms schema theory + reconstructive memory
− Eval: the study used deception but participants were debriefed and not harmed, sample bias – university students

Question 28

Theoretic and computer models (the cognitive approach)

Answer 28

− Theoretical models:
→ Simplified representations of the mental processes occurring during certain tasks e.g. memory
Usually diagrams with boxes to indicate parts if the mind + arrows indicating the flow of information e.g. the multi store memory model
- Computer models: likens the way we deal with information to processes carried out by computers
Sensory info –(transfer)– sequence of mental operations –(transfer)– perceptions, memories, behaviours etc.

Question 29

Emergence of cognitive neuroscience (the cognitive approach)

Answer 29

− Combines several psychological disciplines mainly cognitive psychology + neuroscience
− Focus = look for a biological basis for thought processes that might have been outlined by theoretical/computer models
− Uses new technology to measure the brain + advanced brain imaging methods:
→ PET – scanning method that enables psychologists and doctors to study the brain (or any other living tissue) without surgery. PET scans use radioactive glucose (instead of a strong magnetic field) to help study activity and locate structures in the body.
→ fMRI – brain imaging technique that detects magnetic changes in the brain’s blood flow patterns. This technique can be used to identify behavioral abnormalities that exist because of unusual activation of area of the brain.
− Eval: uses scientific methods + continues to progress as technology advances

Question 30

Evaluation of the cognitive approach: Scientific methods

Answer 30

P: the cognitive approach uses very scientific methods
E: e.g. lab experiments (Brewer + Treyens)
C: these are controlled and replicable so results are reliable
BUT
P: theses lab studies lack ecological validity
E: artificiality of tasks + environment e.g. Brewer + Treyens lab study
C: therefore, it might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday life

Question 31

Evaluation of the cognitive approach: Soft determinism

Answer 31

P: soft determinism
E: it is deterministic in the way that the approach tells us that we can only operate within the limits of the way we process information
C: sees humans as having control over their behaviour – make it a hopeful approach as it assumes people have the power to change their behaviour
BUT
P/E: approach may encourage the idea that people are responsible for their own psychological problems
C: could lead to people being blamed for their psychological abnormalities

Question 32

Evaluation of the cognitive approach: Reductionist

Answer 32

P: over simplistic + reductionist
E: reduces the complexity of human mind process + behaviour to models e.g. the computer model which sees people as mechanistic + lacking free will, also ignores biological causes of psychological abnormality e.g. genetics + biochemistry
C: limitation as the human mind is more complex

Question 33

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (the humanistic approach)

Answer 33

− Maslow was not interested in what went wrong with people but rather what could go right with them, is hierarchy of needs emphasised the importance of personal growth + fulfilment
− The most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid + the most advanced need at the top, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher needed – Maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experiences + the more difficult it is to ignore

(Bottom)
Physiological - Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homostatis, excretion
Safety - Security of: body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health + proporty
Love/belonging - Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Esteem - Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
Self-Actualisation - Mortality, creativity, spontaneity, problem sovling, lack of predudice, acceptance of facts
(Top)

Question 34

Self-actualisation (the humanistic approach -basic assumption)

Answer 34

− A belief of the humanistic approach is that everyone has an innate drive to achieve their full potential, the achievement of that full potential is a state called self-actualisation
− Both Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow believed that individuals self-actualise in their own way it is unique to them
− Maslow’s ideas about self-actualisation anchor around his theory of the hierarchy of needs while for Roger’s self-actualisation is linked to his ideas on the ‘self’ + ‘congruence’
− Individuals who attain this level tend to be creative, accepting of other people + have accurate perception of the world, it is experiences in the form of peak experiences – moments of extreme inspiration + ecstasy where an individual feels able to leave behind all doubts, fears + inhibitions

Question 35

Free will (the humanistic approach - basic assumption)

Answer 35

− The humanistic approach to explaining behaviour assumes that we have free will, that is we can decide + choose our course of action – this is an unusual as most of psychology believes that much of our thought + behaviour is determined (that we have no choice)
− An implication of the belief in free-will is that this means that a person is responsible for their own behaviour, social or anti-social – in terms of the legal system this places responsibility with the individual meaning it is their fault
− Humanists acknowledge that there are constraints on the choices available to an individual at any point which may reduce our options

Question 36

Uniqueness (the humanistic approach - basic assumption)

Answer 36

− Humanists believe that we are all different and that we should be treated as such –there is no point in trying to generalise groups as there are so many differences within each group.
− This approach is therefore unlikely to try to generalise to groups of people and subdivide the population into clusters which all share a characteristic such as age or gender.
− This way of viewing people as unique individuals is called idiographic.

Question 37

Holistic view (the humanistic approach - basic assumption)

Answer 37

− Humanists argue that there is no point looking at just one aspect of an individual –if only one part of them is considered then much of what could be affecting them might be missed e.g. if someone is stressed and it is only their work life that is focused upon in therapy, there could be problems in their home life that might be overlooked.
− Humanists do not agree with focusing on childhood in therapy - they believe the whole life should be considered.

Question 38

Scientific method is inappropriate to study human behaviour (the humanistic approach - basic assumption)

Answer 38

− Humanistic psychology does not describe itself as scientific – it argues the scientific method tries to be too objective (free from opinion and bias) and yet humans are subjective in the way they think and behave
− This therefore means that the methods employed by some approaches in measuring behaviour and thought are inappropriate as they try to measure without acknowledging the subjective experience of the individual

Question 39

Focus on the self - inc. the 3 selves (the humanistic approach)

Answer 39

− Carl Rogers work focuses on the self or rather the selves of the individuals – he suggested that we have 3 selves which need to integrate to achieve self-actualisation
− The self-concept – is the self you feel you are, it is similar to self-esteem + is affected by it, so if someone has low self-esteem their self-concept will be poor + they will have a distorted view of how capable they are
− The ideal self – this is the self you wish to be, it is who you are aiming towards becoming e.g. ‘I wish I was more …’ or ‘I wish I was able to …’, this differs from the self-concept in that it is not who you think you are it is what you wish you were
− The real self – the third self is the real self the person you actually are not who you think you are or who you wish you were, this is actually s difficult self to demonstrate as the subjective experience that is so important to humanistic theory means that everyone will perceive or judge a person differently

Question 40

Congruence (the humanistic approach)

Answer 40

− If there is similarity bet. a person’s ideal self + how they perceive themselves to be in real life a state of congruence exists, a difference represents a state of incongruences
− The closer our self-image + ideal self are to each other the greater the congruence + the higher out feelings of self-worth – it is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist with most people experiencing some degree of incongruence
− Because most people prefer to see themselves in ways that are consistent with their self-image they may use defence mechanisms to feel less threatened by inconsistencies bet. how they would like to be + how they really are

Question 41

Conditions of worth (the humanistic approach)

Answer 41

− Rogers believed that other people may hinder the process of self-actualisation
− Conditions of worth are requirement that the individual feels they need to meet to be lover, this is also called conditional positive regard – conditions of worth can be either real or perceived by the individual
− When people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth – conditions imposed in an individual’s behaviour + development that are considered necessary to earn positive regard from significant others
− An individual may experience a sense of self-acceptance only if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance

Question 42

The influence on counselling psychology (the humanistic approach)

Answer 42

− Rogers (1959) claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of their conditions of worth & the conditional positive regard they receive from others.
− Humanistic therapists regard themselves as ‘guides’ or ‘facilitators’ to help people understand themselves, solve their own problems constructively & find ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation
− Therapists provide empathy & unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance & understanding to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth
− The client then moves towards being more authentic & more true to self i.e. able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than the person others want them to be

Question 43

Evaluation of the humanistic approach: Maslow’s hierarchy is linked to economic development :)

Answer 43

P: Maslow’s hierarchy is linked to economic development
E: A longitudinal study of 88 countries found that countries in the early stages of economic development were characterised by lower level needs (e.g. physiological need such as access to food + safety needs demonstrated by higher murder rates) only in the advanced stages of economic development did esteem needs + self-actualisation become importance
C: This supports the notion that higher level needs (+ eventual self-actualisation) can only be met once an individual had achieved their most basic needs

Question 44

Evaluation of the humanistic approach: Research support (for conditions of worth) :)

Answer 44

P: There is research support for conditions of worth
E: Research discover that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves – the research found that adolescents who create a ‘false self’ pretending to be the kind of person his or her parent would love are also more likely to develop depression + a tendency to lose touch with their own true self
C: This has implications for parents + significant others to show unconditional positive regard which can help the process of self-actualisation

Question 45

Evaluation of the humanistic approach: overly ideal :(

Answer 45

P: The humanistic approach is overly ideal
E: Critics argue that people are not as inherently good + growth-oriented as humanistic theorists suggest + that the approach does not recognise peoples capacity for pessimism + self-destructive behaviour – the vie that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification as the assumption that all problems arise for blocked self-actualisation
C: Encouraging people to focus in their own self-development rather than on situation forced may neither be realistic or appropriate in modern society

Question 46

Evaluation of the humanistic approach: cultural differences :(

Answer 46

P: Cultural difference exist in the hierarchy of needs
E: In a later development to this theory Maslow acknowledged that for some people needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent altogether – research found that in China belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs + hat self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development
C: The hierarchy of needs cannot be generalised across cultures

Question 47

The psychodynamic approach key assumptions inc. instincts

Answer 47

− Freud believed that the origins of behaviour lie in the unconscious mind – behaviour results from a psychological rather than physical cause, therefore this approach assumes that problematic or challenging behaviour can only be addressed by gaining access to the unconscious mind
− Instincts/drives motivate our behaviour – Freud believed that all instincts fall into one of two major classes:
→ Eros (life instincts) – sometimes referred to as sexual instincts the life instincts are those that deal with basic survival, pleasure + reproduction. The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido. Behaviours commonly associated with the life instincts include love, cooperation + other prosocial actions e.g. altruistic behaviours
→ Thanatos (death instincts) – he concluded that people hold an unconscious desire to die but that life instincts largely temper this wish. It’s the drive of aggression, sadism, destruction, violence + death
→ Freud argued that these instincts drive the development of our behaviour + development through a series of stages
− Early experiences are instrumental in determining behaviour – Freud argued that most of our psychological development occurs before the age of 6 yrs. old, he argued that experiences during this time are pivotal to our development

Question 48

The role of the unconscious (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 48

− The unconscious mind can be explained using the iceberg model which draws an analogy between an iceberg + the mind
Conscious - The part of the mind we can access
Pre-conscious (superego) - Lies just below the surface + is made up of thoughts that may surfact at any point into the conscious. Many of our memories reside here - they are accessible but not at the forefront of our thoughts
Unconscious (id) - Thoughts that will not easilt surface + may never do so. Contains the drives + instincts that motivate our behaviours. Inaccessible traumatic/unpleasant memories remain here

Question 49

Id - structures of personality (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 49

− Id – id is the irrational, primitive part of personality. It is present at birth + demands immediate satisfaction. It forms from birth – 18 months + operates solely on the unconscious. It contains the libido + operates according to the pleasure principle

Question 50

Ego - structures of personality (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 50

− Ego – ego is the conscious rational part of the personality. It develops in early childhood + tries to balance the primitive demands of the ID + the moral rules of the superego. It forms from 18 months – 3 yrs. + operates according to the reality principle (blames the Id + superego)

Question 51

Superego - structures of personality (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 51

− Superego – our conscious + sense of right + wrong. Forms from 3 – 6 yrs. It operates according to the morality principle + forms a moral code. It is devised into the conscious + the ego ideal: the conscious = internalisation of social rules + causes guilt, the ego ideal = values/goals we should strive for determined by parental standard

Question 52

Structures of personality conflicts (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 52

− Conflict between the id, ego + superego create anxiety – unresolved conflict can cause mental disorder
− The id + the ego are in direct conflict with one another + it is the job of the ego to cope with the demands of each by allowing them to express themselves at the appropriate times – if the ego id prevented from maintaining this levels of control then either the id of the superego may dominate the personality
→ Id dominated personality: tendency for addiction, immoral behaviour, selfish + uncontrollable, coincident, aggressive + sadistic behaviours + violent
→ Superego dominated personality: develop anxiety + phobias, became obsessive, perfectionist, self-conscious + restricting yourself to the beliefs of others
− These internal conflicts occur at an unconscious level therefore we are not aware that they are taking place

Question 53

Repression - defence mechanisms (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 53

− Repression – an unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconscious where it is not accessible + therefore cannot cause anxiety, there is no recall of the event or situation but it’s still affects our behaviour. E.g. a child who is abused by a parent may have no recollection of this but has trouble forming relationships

Question 54

Denial - defence mechanisms (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 54

− Denial – the refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation which reduces anxiety, the person may believe that the situation is not negative or that the unpleasant event had not happened. E.g. an alcoholic often denies having a drinking problem even after being arrested for drunk + disorderly behaviour

Question 55

Displacement - defence mechanisms (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 55

− Displacement – the focus if a string emotion is expressed onto a neutral person or object, this reduces anxiety by allowing expression of that emotion. E.g. someone who is frustrated by their boss at work may go home + kick their dog

Question 56

Defence mechanisms causing disturbed behaviour (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 56

− The ego protects itself with various defence mechanisms (ego-defences) + they provide a way of satisfying the demands of the id without affecting the superego
− Defence mechanisms can be the cause of disturbed behaviour if they are over used e.g. repressed thoughts may exert a powerful effect on behaviour which cannot be controlled until brought into conscious awareness
− In childhood if the id is not developed enough to deal with traumas + therefore they are often repressed, later in life these repressed thoughts may manifest themselves if e.g. a similar situation is experiences potentially resulting in depression

Question 57

Oral stage - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 57

Age:
0-18 months (id develops)

Key points :
− Satisfaction is derived from the mouth e.g. eating, sucking etc.
− Weaning can cause conflict
Fixation may be caused if a child weans from its mothers milk too early or too late, or if feeding patters were erratic

Fixation could lead to …
− Oral receptive personality (e.g. from under feeding) – trusting + dependent on others
− Oral aggressive personality (e.g. from over feeding) – dominating
Orally fixated individuals may seek gratification through smoking, thumb sucking + pencil chewing

Question 58

Anal stage - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 58

Age:
18-36 months (ego develops)

Key points :
− Pleasure is derived from the anus e.g. expelling +/or withholding faeces
Fixation may be caused if the child loves using the potty + is overly keen to do so (expulsive) or if the parents are very strict about potty training the child will become anxious about using the potty + try to hold in their faeces (retentive)

Fixation could lead to …
− Anal-expulsive personality – generous, creative, productive
Anal-retentive personality – very orderly, rigid, hates waste, stinginess, punctuality, possessiveness, reluctances to spend money

Question 59

Phallic stage - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 59

Age:
3-6 yrs. (superego develops)

Key points :
−	The focus is on the genitals + on the opposite-gender parent, this is revolved through identifying with the same-sex parent 
−	Oedipus complex (boys) – a young boy experiences intense sexual feelings for his mother + sees his father as a rival for his mother’s attention, the boy then feels threaten by his father + experiences castration anxiety, to reduce anxiety the child befriends + identifies with his father
Electra complex (girls) – young girls realise that they don’t have a penis + experience penis envy, they blame their mother believing that she has castrated them which creates tension, to overcome this a girls will identify with her mother, a young girl also sexually desired her father

Fixation could lead to …
− Phallic personality type – self-assured, vain + impulsive
− Conflicts may result in homosexuality, authority problems + rejection of appropriate gender roles
− Men – vanity, self-obsession, narcissism
Women – inferiority, envy

Question 60

Latent stage - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 60

Age:
6-11 yrs.

Key points :
Sexual desires are strongly repressed + so libidinous desires are reduced

Question 61

Genital stage - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 61

Age:
Puberty + (12+)

Key points :
Satisfaction is derived from the genitals + is the basis for mature + adult expressions of love

Question 62

Frustration - psychosexual stages (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 62

− Frustration occurs if these needs are not met but a child may also be overindulged so may be reluctant to progress beyond that stage – both frustration + overindulgence may result in fixation, some of the child’s libido remains permanently locked into that stage, if a child is fixated at a particular stage the method of obtaining satisfaction that characterised that stage will dominate their adult personality

Question 63

Little Hans (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 63

− Hans developed a fear of horses
− Hans had a fascination with his ‘widdler’, he noticed that animals inc. horses often had much larger penises than him 9 evidence of the phallic stage of development
− Evidence of the Oedipus complex:
→ Hans father went away for a while + Hans enjoyed have his mother attention to himself, when his father returned Hans resented his presence
→ Hans was hostile towards his newly born sister
→ He enjoyed getting into bed with his mother, experiencing a sexual attraction to her + seeing his father as a rival for her affections
→ Hans was experiencing castration anxiety
− Freud suggested Little Hans had transferred (or displaced) his fear of his father (castration anxiety) to horse – the horse muzzle + blinkers were thought to be related to his father’s moustache + glasses

Question 64

Little Hans eval (The psychodynamic approach)

Answer 64

− Eval:
→ Freud met the boy only once in a therapeutic setting + the information was forwarded by the father so the source was potentially biases
→ Freud had published his ideas about the psychosexual stages prior to his analysis + therefore possibly from a biased perspective – he could have been looking for evidence to support his ideas
→ Hans had seen a horse collapse in the street when he was you – this could have shocked him + thus classically conditioned him, this could have been the source of the phobia therefore disproving Freud’s analysis

Question 65

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: Pioneering approach :)

Answer 65

P: Psychoanalysis is a pioneering approach
E: It suggested new methodological procedures for gathering empirical evidence (case studies) + relied on observation of behaviour rather than on introspection – from these observations Freud + his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological (as opposed to biological) treatments for disorders e.g. depressions + anxiety
C: This had led to successful treatments i.e. Maat et al’s large-scale review of psychotherapy studies conclude that psychanalysis had produced sig. long-term improvements in symptoms

Question 66

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: Scientific support :)

Answer 66

P: There is scientific support for the psychoanalytical approach
E: Fisher + Greenberg summarised 2,500 studies + concluded that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies relevant to any other major areas of psychology, in particular hey found support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour + the defence mechanisms or repression, denial + displacement
C: This shows that many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested + confirmed using scientific methodology

Question 67

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: Gender-biased/sexist :(

Answer 67

P: Psychanalysis is a gender-biased approach
E: Freud’s views of women + female sexuality were less well developed that his views on male sexuality – despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development Freud seemed to content to remain ignorant of female sexuality + how it may differ from male sexuality
C: Dismissing women + their sexuality is problematic not only because he treated many female patience but also because this theories are still so influential today

Question 68

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: Culture-biased :(

Answer 68

P: Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach
E: Sue + Sue argue that psychoanalysis had little relevance for people from non-western cultures – psychoanalysis believe that metal disorders are the result of traumatic memories being locked in the unconscious + that freeing them through therapy gives the individual that chance to deal with them however in china a person who is depressed or anxious avoid thoughts that cause distress rather than discusses them openly
C: The western belief that open discussion + insight are always helpful in therapy may not apply to all cultures

Question 69

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: Deterministic :(

Answer 69

P: It is criticised as being to deterministic
E: It mainly focuses on early childhood experiences + how these experience can influence your adult behaviour
C: The psychodynamic approach is very deterministic as it suggests that suffering childhoods trauma will lead to abnormal behaviour in adulthood however it ignores the influenced of genes (biology), reward (behaviourism) + thinking patterns (cognitive)

Question 70

Evolution and behaviour (the biological approach)

Answer 70

− Psychological characteristics e.g. intelligence + aggression were adaptive (advantageous for survival + reproduction) + therefore passed down through our ancestor’s genes (natural selection) as they survived and reproduced as a result of the trait
− Over time, organisms ‘adapt’ to their environment.
− A genetic mutation may occur, causing a particular physical or psychological characteristic to be displayed within an individual.
− This characteristic may increase that individual’s chances of survival in their environment – natural selection (‘survival of the fittest’), as well as helping them to gain access to a mate – sexual selection.
− Individuals compete with others for resources e.g. food, mates, and those who are successful are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing their genes (and those behaviours that enabled survival) down to the next generation.

Question 71

Evaluation of SLT: Acknowledges the role of thought processes :)

Answer 71

P: Social learning theory takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behaviour is to be imitated or not.
E: For example, it assumes that observational learning could not occur without cognitive processes. These cognitive factors mediate the learning process to determine whether a behaviour is retained and reproduced. Thus, individuals do not passively observe and imitate the behaviour of a model - there is some thought prior to imitation.
C: As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning - than classical or operant conditioning - by recognising the role of mediational processes.

Question 72

Evaluation of SLT: Can successfully explain initiation of behaviour :)

Answer 72

P: The approach can successfully explain the initiation of certain behaviours.
E: For example, it could explain why someone might start to smoke as a result of exposure to role models e.g. peers, who smoke and who might receive praise for this behaviourin the form of increased popularity (vicarious reinforcement).Bandura successfully demonstrated the acquisition of aggressive behaviour amongst children in his Bobo Doll experiment.
C: The principles of social learning have therefore been usefully applied to increase our understanding of many areas of human behaviour and could in theory be used to change health-related behaviours e.g. the media could present models similar to the target audience to bring about identification.

Question 73

Evaluation of SLT: Increased understanding of criminal behaviour :)

Answer 73

P: The principles of social learning have been applied to increase our understanding of human behaviour i.e. criminal behaviour:
E: Akers (1998): the probability of engaging in criminal behaviour increases when one is exposed to and identifies with models who commit criminal behaviour and develops expectations (outcome expectancies) of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour.

Question 74

Evaluation of SLT: Research (identification) :)

Answer 74

P: Research support for identification:
E: Fox and Bailenson (2009): participants who viewed a virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise 24 hrs following the experiment than participants who viewed a virtual model not exercising or a dissimilar model exercising.

Question 75

Evaluation of SLT: Not a full explanation for all behaviour :(

Answer 75

It is not a full explanation for all behaviour – for example, what happens if there is no apparent role model to imitate? It is then therefore difficult to explain how behaviour was acquired in the first place.

Question 76

Evaluation of SLT: Causality problem (deviant behaviour) :(

Answer 76

P: There is a causality problem with social learning theory explanations of deviant behaviour…
E: For example, the cause of delinquency may not be a result of exposure to deviant role models. Rather, young people who possess deviant values/attitudes would seek out peers with similar attitudes/behaviours. (Siegel & McCormick, 2006)
C: Therefore, this suggests that nature can influence nurture.