applied anatomy and physiology Flashcards
what is the neuromuscular system
the nervous system and the muscles work together to allow movement
what does the sympathetic neuromuscular system
-prepares the body for exercise
- referred to as fight or flight
what does the parasympathetic neuromuscular system do
-opposite effect
-slows down high energy functions and relaxed body
-referred to as rest and relax
over view of muscle fibres
your make up/ pete enrage of fast and slow twitch fibres is called your muscle fibre composition
slow twitch fibre
-smaller muscles and darkish red in colour
-slow contraction speed and low force
-fatigue resistant
-adapted to lower intensity exercise over a long period of time
-produce energy aerobically using oxygen as a source of energy
fast twitch fibre
-larger muscles and light red or white in colour
-fast contraction speed
-generate greater force of contraction
-get fatigued quickly
-used for short, intense bursts of effort
-produce energy aerobically
the 2 types do fast twitch fibres
fast oxidative glycolysic (fog)
fast glycolytic (fg)
what is fog (LLA)
lighter red larger muscles and uses oxygen and glucose as energy
-faster growth speed, more resistant to fatigue and good for 800-1500m
what is fg (LLX)
white in colour due to low oxygen capacity, largest muscles and high levels of glucose stored as glycogen in muscles
fast.
-much faster twitch speed than LLA suitable for short and highly explosive events such as 100m and weight lifting
functional characteristic of slow twitch
-slow contracting speed
-slow motor neurone conduction capacity
-low force
-low fatigue
-very high aerobic capacity
-low anaerobic capacity
structural characteristics of slow twitch
-small motor neurone
-high mitochondria capacity
-high capillary density
slow twitch sporting examples
cross country
skiing
cycling
LLA functional characteristics
-fast contraction speed
-fast motor neurone conduction capacity
-high force
-medium fatigue
-medium aerobic capacity
-high anaerobic capacity
LLA structural characteristics
-large motor neurone
-medium mitochondria density
-medium myoglobin content
-medium capillary density
sporting eg for LLA
1500m
200m swim
floor routine
LLX function characteristics
-fast contraction speed
-fast motor neurone conduction capacity
-high force
-high capacity
-low aerobic capacity
-very high anaerobic capacity
LLX structural characteristics
-large motor neurone
-low mitochondrial density
-low myoglobin content
-low capillary density
LLX sporting examples
-power lifting
100m sprint
smash in tennis
what is mitochondria
the powerhouse of cells
what is myoglobin
supplies oxygen to muscle cells
effects of training of fibre type
-it’s genetically determined
-can increase size
what is a motor unit
a motor neurone and its muscle fibres
what is a motor neurone
nerve cells which transmit the brains instructions as electrical impulses to the muscles
the all or not law
when a motor neurone stimulates its muscle fibres either all of them contract or none at all
what is wave summation
when there is a repeated never impulse with no time to relax so a smooth sustained contraction occurs
how does wave summation allow a performer to vary the strength of muscular contraction
allows a more powerful contraction as the muscle is stimulated again before it is relaxed which increases the force
eg breaststroke
what is tetanic contraction
is when a wave summation is rapid firing. it’s the fusion of contraction to produce a continuous contraction
spatial summation
when the strength of a contraction changes by altering the number/ size of motor units received
MIDLETON DEVISUON
what is the pathway of air
7
1)nose/mouth
2)pharynx
3)larynx
4)trachea
5)right+left bronchus
6)bronchioles
7)alveoli
mechanics of breathing
air always moves from area as of high PP to areas of low PP via diffusion
what 2 muscles are involved in inspiration
external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
what 2 muscles are involved in expiration
internal intercostal muscles and abdominals
what is tidal volume
volume of air breathed in or out per breath
what is inspiratory reserve volume
volume of air that can be forcibly inspired after a normal breath
what is expiratory reserve volume
volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal breath
what is residual volume
the amount of air left over after maximal exhalation
what is minute ventilation
volume of air breathed in or out
what is the calculation for minute ventilation
number of breaths X tidal volume
what is PP
the pressure exerted by an individual has when it existed within a mixture of gases
what is diffusion
the movement of gas molecules from an area of high concentration to low
gas exchange at the alveoli
-the PP of oxygen in alveoli is 100mmhg which is higher than in the capillary blood vessels
-because of working muscles demanding more oxygen
-oxygen will diffuse into the blood until the pressure is equal
carbon dioxide in the capillary blood vessels
-PP of CO2 in the capillary blood vessels which is higher than the one in the alveoli
-because CO2 has been produced as a waste product of respiration
-so CO2 will diffuse into the alveoli from the bloody until the pressure is equal
gas exchange at the muscle
-PP of 02 is low at the tissues than in the capillary blood vessels
-oxygen diffusers from the blood into the muscle until equilibrium is reached
alveoli structure
3
-single cell thick
-moist lining
-extensive network of capillaries
capillary structure
2
one cell thick
large surface area
diffusion pathway of oxygen
alveoli to the blood in the muscles
diffusion pathway of CO2
muscles to blood to alveoli
what controls your pulmonary (breathing) ventilation
is controlled by the nervous system
what controls your pulmonary (breathing) ventilation
2 parts
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
how will the sympathetic nervous system prepare you pulmonary ventilation for exercise
it will speed up breathing
how will the parasympathetic nervous system prepare you pulmonary ventilation for exercise
will lower breathing rate
what are the 3 factors involved in the regulation of pulmonary ventilation during exercise
-neural control (brain + NS)
-chemical control (blood acidity- CO2)
-Hormonal control (adrenaline)
what is the nerve in the inspiratory centre
the phrenic nerve
what is the nerve in the expiratory centre
the intercostal nerve
chemical regulation of pulmonary ventilation
3
1) during exercise blood acidity increases due to increased CO2 + lactic acid
2)detected by chemoreceptors
3)these receptors send impulses to the inspiratory centre which simulate the inspiratory muscle via the phrenic nerve
how do proprioceptors affect the neural control of breathing
they are located in the joints and muscles and detect an increase in muscle movement so they send impulses to the inspiratory centre
how do baroceptors affect the neural control of breathing
detect an increase in BP sends impulse to the inspiratory centre to increase BR
how do stretch receptors affect the neural control of breathing
during exercise the lungs stretch and the receptors prevent over inflation of the lungs by sending impulses to the expiratory centre
the process of inspiration 6 steps
1) increased concentration of CO2 in the blood is detected by the chemoreceptors
2)nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata
3)within the respiratory centre is the inspiratory centre
4) the IC sends out nerve impulses via the phrenic nerve to the inspiratory muscle
5)which causes the diaphragm and external intercostals to contract
6)this stimulation act for approx 2 seconds turn impulses stop and expiration occurs due to the elastic recoil of the lungs
lifestyle choices which affect the respiratory system
4
lack of exercise
poor diet
smoking
alcohol
effects of smoking carbon monoxide
it attract to haemoglobin in the blood more easily than oxygen does so the blood carries less oxygen
effects of smoking on the alveoli and lung function
alveoli can be damaged and as their walls break down and joint together forming larger air sacs than normal. As this reduces their surface area this makes gaseous exchange inefficient
effects of smoking on the trachea ,brochi and cilia
smoking damage the cell lining of the trachea bronchi and bronchioles. as cilia are damaged this leads to excess mucus (smoker cough)
effect of smoking on the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)
smoking increases the risk of developing these respiratory diseases which cause shortness of breath
what are the effects of smoking
3
-decreased gaseous exchange
-narrowing of air passages causing a increase in respiratory resistance
-tar coats the airway and it builds up in lungs
what is the link between smoking and oxygen transport
-carbon monoxide reduces amount of O2 absorbed in the blood
-haemoglobin has greater affinity to CO than O2
what is the role of proprioceptors in PNF
sensory receptors in the muscles and joints that detect change in muscle movement
what is the role of muscle spindles in PNF
a type of proprietor which detect how fast and far a muscle is being stretched
what is the role of stretch reflex in PNF
if a muscle is stretched to far or too fast this is produced to prevent the muscle from over stretching and getting damaged
what is the role of isometric contraction in PNF
when a muscle is under tension and contracting but it’s length does not change and there is no visible movement
what is the role of golgi tendons in PNF
a type of proprioceptors which is activated when there is tension in the muscle
what is the role of autogenic inhibition in PNF
when there is a sudden relaxation of the muscle in response to high tension the receptors involved in this process and are golgi tendon organs
what is PNF 2 points
an advanced stretching technique which usually involves a partner
what is pnf
-it can be passive (external force) or active (no external force) provided
-it’s the most effective form of flexibility training for increasing range of movement at the joint
PNF method/how is it performed
5
1)passive stretch->lengthen to limit
2)isometric->not moving and correct against resistance
3)muscle relaxes
4)static strength and hold repeated
5)greater range of movement in the second stretch
the role of muscle spindles and gogli tendon in PNF
-the muscle action has to be controlled in order to be effective
-proprietors are sensory organs in the muscles,tendons and joints that inform the body of the extent of movement
muscles spindles info
3
-very sensitive proprioceptors that lie between skeletal muscle fibres
-prevents over stretching reducing chance of injury
-10/15 sec stretching activates them
golgi tendon facts
-these are between the muscle fibre and tendons
-they detect levels of tension in a muscle
-resulting in more flexibility and ROM
physiology behind the method of PNF
2
-static stretch passive is detected by muscle spindle
-the aim of PNF is to override the stretch reflex so it does not occur
strengths of PNF
5
-it’s effective
-lowers the risk of injury
-good range of movement
-increase range of movement
-aids muscle relaxation
drawbacks of PNF
3
-mostly requires a partner to assist
-complex/time consuming
-greater discomfort and risk compared to static
what is the definition of health
a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and no merely the absence of disease or infirmity
what is heart disease
build up of fatty deposit causing coronary arteries to become blocked
-insufficient oxygen delivered to heart
what is HBP
-HBP puts extra strain on arteries and heart
-it can lead to heart attacks, failure and strokes
what is a stroke
-when the blood supply to the brain is cut off
-causes damage to brain cells,brain injury or death
what are cholesterol levels
transports cholesterol in blood to tissues and transports excess cholesterol in blood back to the liver to be broken down
what’s the definition of Heart rate
the number of time the heart beats a minute
what’s the definition of stroke volume
the amount of blood ejected from the heart per beat
what’s the CO equation and units
heart rate X stroke volume= CO (L/min)
how is max heart rate calculated
220-age
how is stroke volume and venous return linked
as venous return increases so does stroke volume
what’s it called when someone’s BPM is below 60
bradycardia
why is HR higher in untrained than trained athletes
because the heart has to work harder to get the same amount of blood containing oxygen to meet demands of muscle (more strain on heart)
definition of CO
the volume of blood pumped from the ventricles per minute
trained vs untrained at rest SV
higher resting stroke volume in trained athlete
trained vs untrained at rest HR
lower resting HR in resting
trained vs untrained at rest CO
Resting CO in trained and untrained is the same
trained vs untrained during exercise HR
Lower resting HR for any given intensity in trained (cardiac hypertrophy) and returns to resting quicker
trained vs untrained during exercise stroke volume
higher SV during exercise in trained due to cardiac hypertrophy but will increase for both
starling law process
short 5 steps
1)increased venous return
2)increased diastolic filling of the heart
3)cardiac muscle stretched
4)more force of contraction
5)increased ejection fraction (the % of blood pumped out by the left ventricle per beat)
what is venous returns process/use
is the process of livening blood resting in the veins (70% of total volume of blood at rest) back to the right side of the heart
what is systole
the phase of the heart beat when the heart contracts to pump blood
what is diastole
the phase of the heart beat when the heart relaxes to fill with blood
what is myogenic
originating in muscle as an impulse or sensation
what is the sinoatrial node also known as
the pacemaker
what is a cardiac impulse
the impulse that it generates is spread throughout the heart-> causing it to contract
what’s is the sinoatrial node (SAN)
a small mass of cardiac muscle that generate the heartbeat (pacemaker)
what is the atrioventricular node (AVN)
this node relays the impulse between upper and lower section of the heart
what is the bundle of his
a collection of muscle cells that transmit electrical impulses from the AVN via the bundle branches to the purine fibres
what are bundle branches
they carry an electrical impulses form the bundle of his to the purkinje fibres
what are purkinje fibres
muscle fibres that conduct impulses in the walls of the ventricles
SAABPV
sally always aims balls past vicky
San
Atrial systole
AVN
Bundle of his
purkinje fibres
Ventricular systole
the order of the cardiac conduction system
1) the SAN a small mass of cardiac muscle generates a heartbeat (pacemaker)
2)ATRIAL SYSTOLE- pushed blood into the ventricles
3)AVN-the node relayed the impulse between the upper and lower sections of the hearts
4)BUNDLE OF HIS-a collection of muscle cells that transmit electrical impulses from the AVN via bundle of his
5)PURKINJE FIBRES-carries an electrical impulse from the bundle of his to the purkinje fibres
6)VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE- the ventricles contract by the electrical impulse from the last 3
factors affecting the change in rate of the conduction system
4
chemoreceptors
baroceptors
proprioceptors
neural control mechanism
what is the neural control mechanism which influences the cardiac control system
this involves the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) which stimulates the heart to beat faster and the parasympathetic system (helps the body to relax) which returns the heart to its resting level
sympathetic nervous system what does it to HR
speeds up HR
what do chemoreceptors do in the cardiac conduction system
-chemoreceptors detect changes in blood acidity caused by an increase or decrease in carbon dioxide
-if there is an increase in carbon dioxide concentration the chemoreceptors will stimulate the sympathetic nervous system which means the heart beats faster
what do baroreceptors do in the cardiac conduction system
these detect changes in blood pressure an increase or decrease about a set point will result in them sending signal to the medulla in the brain
what do baroreceptors do in the cardiac conduction system before exercise
the baroreceptors set point increases as the body does not want the HR to slow down as this would negatively affect performance as less oxygen is delivered to working muscle
what do proprioceptors do in the cardiac conduction system
these detect an increase in muscle movement they then send an impulse to the medulla which send an impulse to the SAN through the sympathetic NS to increase HR and if the parasympathetic sends an impulse HR decreases
what happens to HR with chemoreceptors if there is an increase in O2
increase in HR
what happens to HR with baroreceptors if there is an increase in BP
decrease in HR
what happens to HR with proprioceptors if there is an increase in muscle movement
increase HR
where is the cardiac control centre located
medulla oblongata
what does the hormonal control mechanism effect for the cardiac conduction system
-it releases the stress hormone (adrenaline) by the sympathetic nervous system and cardiac nerve
-which stimulates the SAN which results in an increase in both speed and force of contraction increasing cardiac output
starlings law of the heart
4
1)stroke volume increases due to the increased volume of blood filling the ventricles of the heart before contraction
2)this results in an increased number of cardiac fibres
3) therefore an increased force of contraction
4) then this process synchronises with venous return
what is vascular shunting
the body responding to exercise by altering the distribution of blood flow around the body
what is vasodilation
widening of the arteries in order to increase blood and oxygen to the working muscle-> removing LA
what is vasoconstriction
the narrowing of the arteries in order to decrease the blood supply to non essential organs
what are precapillary sphincters
base band wrap capillaries to constrict and widen blood flow
what can the arterials do to control blood flow to the capillaries
widen and narrow
what is the process of redistribution of CO
it’s controlled by the precapillary sphincters which are smooth muscle surrounding the intersection between the arterials and capillaries
where are pre-capillary sphincters
these are tiny ring of muscle located at the opening of the capillaries
what does pre-capillary sphincters aid
blood redistribution by constructing or dilating
how do the chemoreceptors occur in the redistribution of blood
4
1) they detect changes in carbon dioxide and lactic acid
2)this stimulates the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system to vasoconstrict or vasodilate blood
3) when the sympathetic nervous system stimulates it increases vasoconstriction to the organs and vasodilation to the muscle occurs
4) this means more blood is redistributed to the muscle during exercise
why is the ROB important
4
-ensures more blood goes to skin (regulate body temp)
- direct more blood to the heart (more oxygen to contract)
-more oxygen to working muscles
-removing waste product (co2 and LA)
what is venous return
how quickly blood is returned to the heart
what are the 2 types of circulation
pulmonary- deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart
systemic-oxygenated blood to the body from the heart and then the return of deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
arteries structure
2
-thick muscular walls and elastic
-smaller lumen
structure of a vein
3
-thinner muscular walls than arteries
-have valves
-larger lumen than arteries
structure of a capillary
2
-one cell thick
-very thin permeable walls
function of an artery
-to carry blood away from the heart at high pressure
-carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body
function of a vein
-carry blood towards the heart at low pressure
-carrying deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart
function of a capillary
2
-connect and transport blood from arteries to veins under low pressure
-diffusion takes place within the capillaries
what is systolic pressure
the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are contracting
what is diastolic pressure
the pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are relaxing
what % of blood in contained in the veins at rest
70%
what does it mean if 70% of blood is in the veins? (exercise) VR
a large amount of blood can be sent to the heart for exercise
what happens to blood when muscles contract (VR)
the muscle pushed blood towards the heart
what happens to blood in the legs when for venous return
it has to work against gravity
5 mechanism that support venous return
1) the skeletal muscle pump- when muscle contracts and relaxes they change shape. this means the muscle presses on nearby veins and cause a pumping effect and squeezing blood towards the heart
2) the respiratory pump- when breathing in or out muscle contract and relax and pressure changes in the thoracic (chest) and abdominals this change in pressure compresses the nearby veins and assist blood return to the heart
3)pocket valves- ensures blood flow does not flow backwards in the vein, where it is under low pressure
4)smooth muscle- is able to contract in order to increase venous return (muscles squeezing it back to heart)
5)gravity- aids the venous return of blood form the upper body areas above the heart
what is blood pooling (short answer)
blood collecting in the veins
how does blood pooling happen and what does it cause
-when we finish exercise cardiac output is still high but there may be insufficient pressure to maintain venous return.
-this can cause light hardiness or dizziness as the blood is pooling in the valves
Venous return calculation which is related to the right atrium
Venous return - RA pressure / venous resistant
what is haemoglobin
-iron containing pigment found in the red blood cells carrying 4 oxygen molecules lies when fully saturated
what is myoglobin
transports oxygen to the muscle- higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin
what is mitochondria
the powerhouse of the call as respiration and energy production occurs here
what is oxyhaemoglobin
forming when oxygen combines with haemoglobin in areas of high oxygen PP
what is oxyhaemoglobin disassociation
when oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin in areas of low PP
what is partial pressure
gas that moves from areas of high PP to low PP
how does mitochondria use oxygen
it uses it for energy in the muscles
what is oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
in the muscle tissue the PP of oxygen is low so oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin
explain the role of the atrioventricular node in the cardiac conduction system
3
-receive impulse from SAN
-delays the transmission of impulse
-allow ventricles to fill
define a-vo2 difference
the difference in oxygen content of arterial and venous blood
his can cardiovascular drift occur
-lower SV
-higher viscosity of blood
-increased HR to maintain CO
his heart disease can result in a heart attack
-cause blockages
-build up of cholesterial
-limited supply of oxygen to the heart
2 ways an active lifestyle can reduce the risk of heart disease
-lower BP
-stronger heart/ cardiac hypertrophy
how the cardiac conduction system causes the heart to contract
3
-the SAN/pacemaker send an electrical impulse
-spreads a wave of excitation
-this causes the atria to contract
2 positive effect that high density lipoproteins
-remove excess cholesterol
-transports excess cholesterol to the liver
caplin what happens to a-vo2 difference following the onset of exercise
3
-increase in difference
-more oxygen is extracted by the working muscles
-venous blood therefore has less oxygen to return to the heart
describe how the body redistributes blood to the skeletal muscle during exercise
-vasoconstriction occurs to non essential organs and vasodilation occurs to working muscles
-increased sympathetic nervous impulses sphincters contract
starlings law 3 points
1) increased VR
2) increased diastolic filling of the heart
3) cardiac muscle stretched
4) more powerful contraction
what is cardiovascular drift
-in a warm environment stroke volume decreases due to reduction in blood plasma
-venous return also decreases so heart rate decreases so HR increases to keep CO at required rate
what is bohr shift
-during exercise oxygen dissociates from oxygen faster. body temp PP of carbon dioxide in PH (acidity)
the curve shifts to the right
in vascular shunting what do the chemoreceptors stimulate the vasometre
it regulates HR and BP and blood flow distribution in the medulla oblongata
what is fitness
the ability to meet the demands of the environment
what is anticipatory rise
increase in HR before exercise
the adrenal glands release adrenaline into the blood stream
what is cardiovascular drift
a gradual increase in HR during prolonged exercise, despite steady intensity
why does cardiovascular drift
occurs during prolonged exercise (10 mins) in a warm environment despite the intensity of the exercise
this causes sweating to cool the body down.
