AP Psychology Chapter 2 Biological Psychology Flashcards
cells that process incoming signals and respond by sending out signals of their own
Neurons
cells that aid in the transferring of a signal, help keep the basic structure of the nervous system intact, and provide nourishment to neurons
Glial Cells
branch-like structures that receive information from adjacent neurons
dendrites
the centerpiece of a neuron that contains information (DNA) that determine how a neuron will function.
Nucleus
The cell body of the nucleus that produces neurotransmitter substances and helps protect the vital information contained in the nucleus.
Soma
a gatekeeper-like structure that determines whether information will proceed down the neuron.
Axon Hillock
The neural fiber that transmits or send information from the soma to the other end of the neuron.
Axon
a fatty tissue substance that protects information stored inside the axon
Myelin
gaps between sections of myelin that speed up the process of transmission
Nodes of Ranvier
the ending part of the neuron that releases information
Axon terminal/buttons
the space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of an adjacent neuron
synapse/synaptic cleft
chemicals that transfer information from one neuron to another.
Neurotransmitters
an area on the dendrite that accepts neurotransmitters.
Receptor Site
an area on the dendrite that returns unused neurotransmitters, where they wait until another signal allows them to reenter the synapse.
Reuptake Centers
neurons that transmit information from the spinal cord to the brain.
Afferent (sensory) neurons
neurons that transmit information from the brain to muscles and glands
Efferent (motor) neurons
Negatively charged chloride ions exist with the axon, resulting in a negative charge
Polarization
Negatively charged ions wait for stimulation within the axon. The neuron is said to be inactive and is waiting for another increase in electrical charge.
Resting Potential
When stimulated, the channels along the axon allow positively charged sodium, which is on the outside of a resting neuron, and potassium ions to enter. This causes subsequent sodium and potassium channels to open, thus propelling the electrochemical process down the axon.
Depolarization
A change in the balance of the overall charge of the neuron causes the electrochemical signal to travel (it is fired) along the axon.
Action Potential
A point of excitation on the neuron that must be reached for an action potential to occur.
Threshold
Once the threshold is reached the neuron will fire at full strength. If the threshold is not reached, the neuron will not fire.
All-or-none Principle
The period after a neuron fires, at which time it is less susceptible to stimulation from other neurons. The neuron must recharge itself electrically until it reaches polarization. Once this occurs, the neuron is ready to fire again. This only takes a fraction of a second in the nervous system, as opposed to the endocrine system which is much slower.
Refractory Period
Function: Memory, mood, voluntary muscle movement
Excess: Convulsions or excess shaking
Deficiency: Alzheimer’s disease, paralysis
Acetylcholine
Function: Feelings of euphoria (reward), movement
Excess: Schizophrenia
Deficiency: Parkinson’s disease
Dopamine
Function: Mood, appetite, impulsiveness
Excess: Tremors, headaches
Deficiency: Depression, eating disorders, alcoholism, aggression.
Serotonin
Function: Mood, sleep, movement
Excess: Lethargy
Deficiency: Anxiety disorders, Huntington’s disease
GABA
Function: Alertness, sleep, learning
Excess: Fear, anxiety
Deficiency: Depression
Norepinephrine
Function: Memory
Excess: Brain damage due to overstimulation
Deficiency: Neurological disorders
Glutamate
System responsible for processing and distributing information throughout the body.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Responsible for cognitive functioning
Brain
Responsible for transmitting information throughout the body.
Spinal Cord
System responsible for voluntary movement and regulation of vital processes.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
System responsible for voluntary movement and contains afferent and efferent nerve fibers.
Somatic Nervous System
Automatic regulation of vital human functioning (breathing, digestion, heartbeat, etc.)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Spends reserved energy
Sympathetic Nervous System
Restores and repairs spent energy
Parasympathetic Nervous System
the tendency for one hemisphere to excel in the performance of certain tasks.
Laterization
the neural tissue/fiber that connects the two halves of the brain.
Corpus Callosum
areas of the brain that receive and combine information from multiple sources allowing for the performance of complicated tasks.
Association Areas
Areas of the brain that are specialized in the production of certain tasks.
Functional Areas
Located just behind the forehead and the largest of the four lobes.
Responsible for controlling inhibitions, short-term memory, reasoning, and planning for the future.
Damage to this are of the brain may result in the person being impulsive or profane, experiencing difficulty making decisions, and having trouble planning for future events.
Frontal Lobe
Responsible for receiving and combining tactile stimuli from all over the body to allow the formation of a single concept
Damage to this area may result in an inability to integrate sensations normally.
Parietal Lobe
Responsible for processing visual stimuli, as well as maintaining balance
Damage to this area of the brain may result in an inability to perceive movement, identify colors, and read or write words.
Occipital Lobe
Responsible for processing auditory stimuli.
Damage to this area of the brain may result in an inability to under spoken words and possible difficulty in the formation of memories.
Temporal Lobe
Responsible for transforming spoken words into thoughts.
Damage can cause aphasia, inability to understand speech.
Those who suffer may have trouble understanding the words they say, making their speech long and incoherent.
Wernicke’s Area
Responsible for transferring thoughts into audible spoken words.
Damage can result in Broca’s aphasia, an inability to speak coherently.
Those who suffer with this have difficulty expressing their thoughts into actual words.
Broca’s Area
Responsible for voluntary movements of the body; located in the back of the frontal lobe.
Damage to this area of the brain can result in an inability to voluntarily move the body.
Motor Cortex
Responsible for receiving sensory information; located at the front of the parietal lobe and adjacent to the motor cortex.
Damage to this area of the brain can result in the loss of sensation from stimuli.
Somatosensory Cortex
Considered the most primitive part of the brain, and is responsible for our basic life functioning (heartbeat, digestion, arousal, and balance/coordination)
Hindbrain
Transmits signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain and helps process information relating to our sense.
Midbrain
The last part of the brain to form, is the most complex part. It includes the brain structures that help regulate emotions, hunger levels, formation of long-term memories, growth hormones, and sense of smell.
Forebrain
In the hindbrain
Automatically controls basic life support functions (respiration, digestion, heartbeat, and blood pressure)
Medulla Oblongata
In the Hindbrain
Relays information between the cerebellum and the cerebrum (brain); helps control autonomic functions such as sleeping and dreaming
Pons
In the Hindbrain
Regulates alertness and arousal levels; damaging this area results in a coma
Reticular Formation
Aids in balance and coordination of movement
Cerebellum
Lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord to send and receive information.
Brain Stem
In the Midbrain
Controls smooth body movements
Striatum
In the Forebrain
Serves as a switchboard that relates information to the appropriate area of the brain for procession; doesn’t not process the sense of smell.
Thalamus
In the Forebrain
Regulates hunger, thirst, the fight or flight response, sex drive, and body temperature; maintains homeostasis.
Hypothalamus
Associated with fear and aggression; if removed, the subject will not experience fear or aggression.
Amygdala
Controls the formation of new explicit memories; has the largest concentration of acetylcholine.
Hippocampus
Structure that transmits smell from the nose to the brain bypassing the thalamus.
Olfactory Bulb
Known as the “master gland” responsible for the production and distribution of hormones throughout the body.
Pituitary Gland
Uses electrodes that are placed on the scalp to measure the brain’s electrical activity.
Can quickly measure changes in brain activity.
Poor spatial resolution and has no ability to measure activity deep within the brain.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
produces two-dimensional image based on X-rays taken around a single axis. Gives in side view of the structures within the brain.
It allows psychologists to view possible abnormalities that may exist but were undetectable by EEG.
Does not allow the researcher to view the mental processes of the brain–essential to cognitive and experimental psychologists.
Computed Tomography (CT or CAT) Scan
Provides a more detailed vies of the soft tissue found in the brain by using a large magnetic field to reconstruct the image within the body/brain.
it does not use X-rays to produce an image and it provides a greater contrast within an image.
It exposes the body to a strong magnetic field and it is unable to show what ares of the brain are active during a particular task.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Measures the structure and function of neural activity within the brain. Shows the area of the brain associated with cognitive functioning, as measured by blood flow.
Does not accurately show the working of neural networks, which are the basis of thinking.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
The connection and functioning of neurons
Neural Networks
Use radioactive liquid to measure metabolic and glucose processing. Produces a three-dimensional view of the human body’s or brain’s metabolic processing of glucose. Shows the areas that are active during cognitive functioning.
Does not show how neural networks process information, includes possible risks associated with injecting radioactive material into the bloodstream, do not provide the level of detail of MRIs, and do not show real-time brain activity, as an EEG does.
Positive Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
Briefly excites neural activity, possibly causing neurons to become inactive temporarily due to overstimulation. Used to find which area of the brain is responsible for cognitive functioning. The overstimulation will cause the area of the brain to become inactive, if the subject is unable to complete a certain task, one can assume the inactive area is responsible for the task.
Brief pain of discomfort at the region of the scalp exposed, possible onset of a seizure, especially for subjects with epilepsy.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Scan
Chemical signals carried through the bloodstream
Hormones
Produces melatonin
As melatonin levels rise, a person becomes more tired. Hormone levels should increase as darkness (nighttime) sets in.
Pineal Gland
In the Neck; u-shaped, wraps around Adam’s apple.
Produces Thyroxin
Metabolizes food to produce energy.
Thyroid Gland
Above Kidneys
Produces adrenalin, cortisol, and dopamine
Used for alertness levels, regulating stress, and preparing body for fight or flight response
Adrenal Gland
Located in lower torso
Produces testosterone, estrogen
Found in males in the testes. Responsible for production of sperm and male sex hormones. Found in females in the uterus and ovaries. Responsible for female sex characteristics.
Reproductive Glands
Hormone
Regulates a person’s height
Growth Hormones
Hormone
Natural pain killer produced by body
Endorphins
Hormone
Stimulates production of breast milk
Prolactin
Hormone
Regulates sleep
Melatonin
Hormone
Controls basal metabolic rate of BMR
Thyroxin
Hormone
Boosts supply of oxygen to brain and muscles.
Adrenalin
Hormone
Released in response to stress, acts as a stress fighter
Cortisol
Hormone
Acts as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, depending on where it is released; increases blood pressure.
Dopamine
Hormone
Increases size of muscles, growth of secondary sex characteristics, increased bone density.
Testosterone
Hormone
Growth of secondary sex characteristics, reduces muscle mass, increases height.
Estrogen
The removal of tissue
Ablation
Tissue damage resulting from disease
Lesion
Changes that occur in the brain due to environmental factors
Plasticity
Identified area in LEFT frontal lobe responsible for speech production
Paul Broca
Furthered Broca’s work, and demonstrated a separate area for language comprehension in left temporal lobe.
Carl Wernicke
Identified the corpus callosum as an important structure connecting the brain’s two hemisphere.
Konstantin Bykov
Identified unique functions of each hemisphere by “splitting” brains of lab animals and later studying humans
Roger Sperry
Worked with Sperry to learn about the special function of each hemishpere
Mike Gazzaniga
motor movement and implicit memories including procedural memories
Basal Ganglia
Voluntary movement, balance, implicit memories including classically conditioned responses.
Cerebellum
In Spinal Cord: swift reflexes
In Brain: cognitive functions
Interneurons
Immune system attacks myelin of neurons in central nervous system; impacts thinking, mood, mobility.
Multiple Sclerosis
Neuron transmitting an impulse
Presynaptic Neuron
The receiving neuron after one transmits an impulse
Postsynaptic Neuron
Increases the chance that the next neuron in the chain will “fire”
Excitatory Neuron
Decrease the chance that the neuron in the chain will “fire”, “brakes” of the nervous system.
Inhibitory Neurons
Substances that mimic a neurotransmitter or block its reuptake. It can mimic the neurotransmitters at the receptor site and bind to the receptor sites, or it can blithe the reuptake channels so it keeps neurotransmitters in the synapse for a little longer.
Agonists
Substances that block the actions of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonists
Slows neural activity
Depressants
Increase neural activity
Stimulants
Increase activity on dopamine receptors
Hallucigens
The birth of new neurons
Neurogenesis
Our lifelong ability to recognize our neural pathways in response to learning or to brain damage.
Neuroplasticity
