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AP Psychology > AP Psych Final Review > Flashcards

AP Psych Final Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Action potential

A

A neural impulse; a brief electric charge that travels down an axon. Generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon membrane.

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2
Q

Aggression

A

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

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3
Q

Anxiety disorder

A

Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

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4
Q

Absolute threshold

A

Minimum stimulation need to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

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5
Q

Anxiety

A

An unpleasant emotional state

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6
Q

Biological

A

Focuses on the relationship between the body and the mind

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7
Q

Cognition

A

Conceded with memory, perception, thought, and other mental processes

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8
Q

Behavioral

A

Concerned mainly with a person’s observable responses to stimuli

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9
Q

Humanistic

A

Focuses on a person’s capacity for self fulfillment and growth

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10
Q

Psychodynamic

A

Concerned with the influence of unconscious desires and motives

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11
Q

Hypotheses

A

Testable explanations of observed events

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12
Q

Reliability

A

The study produced consistent results when replicated

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13
Q

Validity

A

The study accurately measures what it claims to measure. 3 types.

Construct
Internal
External

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14
Q

Construct validity

A

The study measures the effect that it is trying to measure

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15
Q

Internal validity

A

The study shows the only experimental factor caused an effect

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16
Q

External validity

A

The study results apply to other situations

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17
Q

Correlational study

A

Expresses the relationship between two variables; does not imply causation

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18
Q

Experiment

A

Manipulation of an independent variable in order to understand its effect on a dependent variable. Identifies cause and effect relationships

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19
Q

Sampling

A

The process of choosing subjects to study

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20
Q

Sample

A

A group of subjects selected to study; subset of a population

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21
Q

Population

A

A group of people about whom the researcher wants to make conclusions.

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22
Q

Random assignment

A

Random placement of subjects into experimental or control groups

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23
Q

Control group

A

A group not subject to experimental manipulation

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24
Q

Variables

A

Things that can vary amount subjects

Independent
Dependent
Confounding

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25
Q

Independent variable

A

Manipulated by researcher; produces change in dependent variable

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26
Q

Dependent variable

A

Measured by the researcher

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27
Q

Confounding variable

A

Any possible variable (other than the independent variable) that may cause the observes effect

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28
Q

Statistical analysis

A

Desecibes dats and quantifies relationships between variables

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29
Q

Frequency distribution

A

An arrangement of data points on how frequent they occur

Normal and central tendency

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30
Q

Normal distribution

A

A frequency distribution with a symmetrical bell-shaped curve

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31
Q

Central tendency

A

Measures of the center of the frequency distribution.

Three types:
Mean
Median
Mode

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32
Q

Mean

A

Arithmetic average of data set

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33
Q

Median

A

Middle data point

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34
Q

Mode

A

Most frequent data point

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35
Q

Variability

A

How the data are dispersed or spread around the mean

Range
Standard deviation

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36
Q

Range

A

The distance between the highest and lowest data point

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37
Q

Standard deviation

A

The average distance of a data point from the mean. Small: scores are relatively close to the mean score. Large: scores have a wider range

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38
Q

Statistical significance

A

Means that the did fences observed are too high to have occurred by chance

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39
Q

Type 1 error

A

False positive; perceives an effect is not there

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40
Q

Type 11 error

A

False negative; fails to perceive an effect that is there

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41
Q

Nervous system

A

Receives and transmits information

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42
Q

CNS

A

Consists of the brains spinal cord wand brain

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43
Q

Contralateral control

A

Each hemisphere of the brain controls opposite sides of the body

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44
Q

Lateralization

A

Left and right hemispheres have different functions

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45
Q

Hindbrain

A

Top part of the spinal cord; includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

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46
Q

Medulla

A

Controls basic biological functions: breathing, swallowing, and balance

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47
Q

Pons

A

Controls facial expressions, sleep and dreaming

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48
Q

Cerebellum

A

Controls fine motor movement

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49
Q

Midbrain

A

Coordinates basic movements with sensory information

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50
Q

Forebrain

A

Large in humans; includes the cerebral cortex and sy cortical structures such as thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia

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51
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Regulates muscle contractions/movements

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52
Q

Thalamus

A

Incorporates and relays sensory information to the cortext

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53
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Controls motivated behavior: eating, drinking, and sex

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54
Q

Hippocampus

A

Helps process and receive long-term and spatial memory

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55
Q

Amygdala

A

Controls emotion and evaluation of stimuli

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56
Q

Cerebral cortext

A

Receives sensory information and transmits motor information

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57
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Nerve tract beneath the cortex the connects the two the two hemispheres and allow them to communicate

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58
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Processes Vision

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59
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Processes sound

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60
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Integrates sensory systems; is involves in attentions

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61
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Controls speech, learning, thinking, decision-making, and abstract thoughts

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62
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Includes all the members that spread through the body from the brain and the spinal cord

Somatic division
Autonomic division

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63
Q

Somatic division

A

Controls voluntary muscle movements and sense organs

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64
Q

Autonomic division

A

Controls involuntary actions and internal organs

Two parts:
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic

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65
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Gets the body ready for emergency actions

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66
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Becomes active during states of relaxations

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67
Q

Neurons

A

Nerve cells, are basic unit of the nervous system. Each neuron has three main parts:
Soma
Dendrite
Axon

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68
Q

Soma

A

Cell body; stores energy for the cell

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69
Q

Dendrite

A

Receives messages from other neurons and conducts the messages toward the soma

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70
Q

Axon

A

Sends messages to other neurons

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71
Q

Terminal branches (axon terminals)

A

The end of the axon that contains neurotranmitters

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72
Q

Myelin sheath

A

insulates axons so signals can travel quickly

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73
Q

Glial Cell

A

Creates myelin, suppports and guides neurons, and help repair neurons

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74
Q

Synapse

A

the small gap between neurons where information is exchanged

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75
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

Places where neurotransmitters are stored until releases into the synapse

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76
Q

Neurotransmiitters

A

chemicals that stimulate neurons so they can communicate

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77
Q

Excitatory

A

Make neurons more likely to fire

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78
Q

Inhibitory

A

Make neurons less likely to fire

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79
Q

Excitation Threshold

A

the voltage difference (-55 millivolts) necessary to destabilize a neuron, causing an action potential to occur

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80
Q

Action potential (nerve impulse)

A

the brief charge in electrical charge that destabilizes a neuron. The action potential stimulates the axon terminals, restarting the process.

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81
Q

Endocrine system

A

Made up of hormone-secreting glands, affects communication inside the body

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82
Q

Hormones

A

Chemicals that help regulate bodily functions

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83
Q

Cornea

A

Protective covering where light first enters the eye

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84
Q

Lens

A

Bends or refracts light rays; focuses a flipped, inverted image into the retina

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85
Q

Retina

A

Thin structure at back of eye that contains two types of receptor cells: Cones and rods

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86
Q

Rods

A

Cells in the periphery of the retina that respond to black and white. Better in low light, more sensitive to motion, and have less visual acuity.

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87
Q

Cones

A

Centered in the fovea. Respond to color, good for daytime vision, more visual acuity.

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88
Q

Optic Nerve

A

Carries visual information to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

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89
Q

Blind Spot

A

A place where the optic nerve exits the eye; has no receptor cells, so no vision

90
Q

Light waves

A

Electromagnetic waves that stimulate receptors in the eyes

91
Q

Intensity

A

Amount of energy per unit of time (brightness)

92
Q

Wavelength

A

Distance between two wave crests (color)

93
Q

Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)

A

Three types of cones detect three wavelengths of light (blue, green, red). DO NOT explain negative afterimages

94
Q

Negative Afterimages

A

If you stare at one color and then look at white space, you see a color afterimage in the complementary hie of the original stimulus.

95
Q

Opponent-Process Theory (Hering)

A

Receptor cells are arranged in pairs: red/green, blue/yellow, and black/white. If one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited.

96
Q

Outer Ear (Pinna)

A

Collects sound from air and directs it through the ear canal.

97
Q

Tympanic membrane

A

A membrane that vibrates when sound hits it

98
Q

Oval Window

A

A membrane that separates middle ear from inner ear; sends vibrations to the cochlea

99
Q

Cochlea

A

A fluid-filled membrane in the inner ear; its pressure changes stimulate hair cells

100
Q

Hair Cells

A

Auditory receptor cells that initiate nerve impulses

101
Q

Sound wave

A

Vibrations (changes in air pressure) that stimulate auditory receptors.

102
Q

Amplitude

A

The height of a wave (loudness) The pressure exerted by each air particle

103
Q

Frequency

A

The length of a wave (pitch) the time between two points of maximum amplitude.

104
Q

Place Theory

A

Hair cells respond to different frequencies of sound based on their location in the cochlea.

105
Q

Frequency Theory

A

Hair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea allowing us to sense pitch

106
Q

Smell (Olfaction)

A

Information gathered from chemicals in the air. Inhaled molecules excite receptors in the olfactory epithelium.

107
Q

Taste

A

Sensory receptors in taste buds of tongue sensitive to salty, sour, bitter, and sweet.

108
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

Gathers messages from the olfactory receptor cells and sends them to the brain.

109
Q

Skin senses

A

Information from the skin, including pressure, pain, warmth, and cold

110
Q

Vestibular sense

A

Receptors in semicircular canal of inner ear sense how our body us oriented, maintains balance, and located our head in space.

111
Q

Kinesthetic sense

A

Receptors in muscles, tendons, joints give information about our limbs.

112
Q

Pereption

A

Refers to understanding and interpreting sensations from a stimulus,

113
Q

Absolute threshold

A

The lease amount of stimulus that is observable

114
Q

Difference Threshold

A

The smallest amount a stimulus must change so that the observer can perceive a just noticeable difference (JND)

115
Q

Weber’s Law

A

The size of the difference threshold is proportional to the stimulus’s intensity.

116
Q

Perceptual Constancy

A

We see qualities of an object as constant (size, shape, brightness)

117
Q

Visual Depth Perception

A

The perception of cues that indicate the distance of an object.

118
Q

Monocular Cues

A

Cues that do not use two eyes.

Four types:
Interposition
Size
Linear Perspective
Texture Gradients
119
Q

Interposition

A

Objects in front are closer.

120
Q

Size

A

Larger objects are closer.

121
Q

Linear Perspective

A

Objects produce smaller retinal image as they are farther away

122
Q

Texture Gradients

A

Detail of texture is greater if the surface is closer

123
Q

Binocular Cues

A

Cues using two eyes.

Binocular or retinal desparity

124
Q

Binocular or retinal desparity

A

The difference between the two eyes’ views. Binocular disparity increase the farther the object is from the observer.

125
Q

Motion Cues: Motion Parallax

A

As you move your head, images of close things change position more quickly on the retina than images of distant ones.

126
Q

Gestalt Rules

A

Laws that the brain uses to group or organize elements of a scene.

Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Closure
Common Fate
127
Q

Proximity

A

Objects near each other belong together.

128
Q

Similarity

A

Objects that resemble each other belong together

129
Q

Continuity

A

Objects that form a continuous line belong together

130
Q

Closure

A

Objects that make up something we recognize belong togethr

131
Q

Common Fate

A

Objects moving in the same direction belong together

132
Q

Processing

A

Refers to the way in which we recognize and organize stimuli

133
Q

Bottom-Up (Feature Analysis)

A

Starts with a smaller, specific elements of a scene and use them to creat the larger units or context.

134
Q

Top-Down Processing

A

Starts with a larger context or units to recognize smaller, specific elements ot the scene; uses schemata

135
Q

Schemata

A

Mental representations of our expectations of the world.

136
Q

Attention

A

Process of perceiving some information and not other information.

137
Q

Cocktail Party Effect

A

A person suddenly switches attention if his or her name is said

138
Q

Stroop Effect

A

Automatic processes can interfere with other tasks; hard to name the color os a word colored differently

139
Q

Habituation

A

Tendency to respond to stimuli lessens as the stimuli become more familiar

140
Q

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

A

Creation of involuntary responses to stimuli

141
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

From the environment; triggers natural response

142
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

Natural reaction to UCS

143
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

Pair with UCS; before pairing, the CS does not produce a response; after pairing, it does.

144
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

A response to a CS; the Cr is often the same as the UCR, but it is a leaned response.q

145
Q

Extinction

A

When the CS appears withUCS, the CR eventually disappears

146
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

After extinction, the CS reappears and elicits CR

147
Q

Generalization

A

CR occurs to stimuli that are similar to CS

148
Q

Discrimination

A

CR only occurs to CS that was previously paired with UCS.

149
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Learning based on the association of consequences to one’s behavior. A reinforcer is given only id there is an operant response.

150
Q

Operant

A

An instrumental response

151
Q

Reinforcer (reward)

A

Something that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

152
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

If desired behaviors occurs, add something pleasant

153
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

If desired behavior behavior occurs, take away something unpleasant.

154
Q

Punisher

A

Something that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

155
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

Occurs when a subject believes that unpleasant or painful stimuli are inevitable and gives up trying to change the circumstances.

156
Q

Shaping

A

Reinforcing successive steps to reach a desired behavior

157
Q

Chaining

A

Reinforcing a series of behaviors to get a reward

158
Q

Extinction

A

Occurs if behavioral response is no longer reinforced.

159
Q

Schedule of Reinforcement

A

Pattern of reinforcing behavioral responses.

Two types:
Continuous
Partial

160
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement after every correct response.

161
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement after some correct responses.

Four types:
Fixed
Variable 
Fixed-Ratio
Variable-Ratio
162
Q

Fixed

A

Reinforcement is given a fixed amount of time after a correct response. (response starts slow, increases rapidly)

163
Q

Variable

A

Reinforcement is given an average amount of time after a correct response. (low rates of response)

164
Q

Fixed-ratio Schedules

A

Reinforcement os given after a fixed number of correct responses.

165
Q

Variable-ration Schedule

A

Reinforcement is given after an average number of correct responses (very high rates of response)

166
Q

Memory

A

Refers to the way we record events, information, and skills.

167
Q

Encoding

A

Acquiring information from the world and storing it in memory.

168
Q

Shallow Encoding

A

Encoding for surface features (Less successful)

169
Q

Deep Encoding

A

Encoding for structural relationships and meaning (more successful)

170
Q

Storage

A

Holding on to information for later use

171
Q

Retrieval

A

Getting information back when it is needed

Two ways:
Recall
Recognition

172
Q

Recall

A

Supplying information in response to a cue or question

173
Q

Recognition

A

Deciding whether information was encountered before

174
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Where information first enters memory system. Large capacity, short duration; some of it is encoded or stored in STM.

175
Q

Short-term Memory (working memory)

A

Where we use and are aware of memories

  1. Small capacity- (7+-2 items)
  2. Short Duration- (30 seconds)
176
Q

Chunking

A

STM capacity increases by recoding information into larger, meaningful units. (Small Capacity)

177
Q

Rehearsal

A

STM duration increases through repetition of information. (Short Duration)

178
Q

Long-term Memory (LMT)

A

relatively permanent store of information, unlimited capacity, and long duration. One can transfer memories from STM and LTM by REHEARSAL.

179
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Memory for skills and motor patterns

180
Q

Explicit Memory

A

Momory for facts, events, and meanings

181
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Memory for general meanings and information.

182
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Memory of specific personal events.

183
Q

Decay

A

Memory becomes eroded because we have not used it for a while.

184
Q

Displacement

A

Items are pushed out of memory by other items; applies only to STM and sensory memory, not LTM.

185
Q

Primary Effect

A

Higher likelihood of remembering earlier rather than later information. (Rehearsal)

186
Q

Recency Effect

A

Higher likelihood of remembering earlier rather than later information (rehearsal)

187
Q

Reconstructive Nature of Memory

A

Remembering by combing elements of experience with existing knowledge; often through use of schemas.

188
Q

Schemas

A

Organized knowledge structures stored in memory that are used tp guide comprehension and memory.

189
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Earlier learning disrupts later learning.

190
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

Later learning disrupts earlier learning.

191
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

Patient cannot form new memories after brain injury.

192
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Patient cannot remember events prior to brain injury.

193
Q

Language

A

A system of symbols used to represent and communicate information.

194
Q

Phoneme

A

Smallest unit of sound in language

195
Q

Moroheme

A

Smallest sound unit that carries meaning

196
Q

Syntax

A

The way in which words are arranged into phrases and sentences.

Two types:
Surface structure
Deep structure

197
Q

Surface structure

A

The way words are organized

198
Q

Deep Structure

A

the meaning of sentences

199
Q

Language Acquisition

A

Learning occurs in stages:

  1. Babies innately practice with phonemes (babbling)
  2. Telegraphic Speech
200
Q

Telegraphic Speech

A

Using short phases to form primitive sentences.

201
Q

Aphasias

A

Absence of some part of the ability to use language

202
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A

Inability to produce fluent speech

203
Q

Wernicke’s Speech

A

Inability to comprehend speech

204
Q

Thinking

A

Refers to mental activities sed to reason or reflect

205
Q

Metal Representations

A

Representation of knowledge and thought

Two types:
Analogical
Symbolic

206
Q

Analogical

A

The representation has some of the qualities of the thing it represents.

207
Q

Symbolic

A

The representation has none of the qualities of the thing it represents

208
Q

Visual (mental) imagery

A

Representations of sensory experience that occur in the brain, without the presence of sensory input.

209
Q

Concept information

A

Mental classification of objects and events based on common features.

210
Q

Concept

A

A class or category with individuals or subtypes

211
Q

Prototype

A

The best example of a concept

212
Q

Problem Solving

A

Th use of a set of information to achieve a goal.

213
Q

Algorithm

A

A systematic step-by-step method of trying every possible solution

214
Q

Heuristic

A

Use of a rule of thumb that worked in the past; does not guarantee answer

215
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Judging a situation based on the frequency with which similar situations come to mind

216
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Judging a situation based on how similar it is to a prototypical situation, regardless of how common the situation is.

217
Q

Decision-making

A

the process of choosing between two options

218
Q

Framing

A

The way a problem is posed affects the perception of how it is best solves.

219
Q

Reasoning

A

The determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from examples or assertions

220
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

the construction of conclusions from particular examples.

221
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

The process of deciding whether a conclusion can be drawn from the premises or facts.

AP Psychology (5 decks)

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