AOS1 - how are people influenced to behave in certain ways? (chapter 6A-D, 7A-D)

Question 1

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Analyse the phrase “Don’t judge a book by it’s cover”

Answer 1

Despite this saying embeding in ur minds growing up in this generation, it is near impossible to not judge, as humans we are constantly making judgemnts and forming impressions in order to make sense of our social world and guide our decisions and interpersonal interations.

Question 2

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What happens when we first meet someone?

Answer 2

We make a snap judgement about them in less then 1 second, based on readily available information which tends to be superficial (existing or occuring on the surface), like apppearance and body language.

Question 3

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are snap jusgements refered to as?

Answer 3

Snap judgements are called first impressions

Question 4

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define first impressions:

Answer 4

First impressions are a type of direct person perception that can have a lasting impact on the way we feel about and behave towards a certain person.

Question 5

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define a person perception:

Answer 5

Person Perceptions refer to the different metal processes used to understand and form impressions of other people.

Question 6

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are the 2 types of person perceptions?

Answer 6

The two types of person perceptions are:
* Direct/Directly
* Indirect/Indirectly

Question 7

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define Direct Perception:

Answer 7

Direct Perception
* This refers to when you form an impression or judgment about a person based on firsthand information.
* This includes observing their behavior, listening to what they say, and interacting with them directly.
* You gather information through personal experiences and direct contact with the individual.

Question 8

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define Indirect Perception:

Answer 8

Indirect Perception
* This is when you form an impression or judgment about a person based on secondhand information.
* This includes hearing about the person from others, reading about them, or seeing information about them in media.
* Indirect perception relies on the accounts and descriptions provided by other sources rather than personal experience.

Question 9

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are the impacts of first impressions on person perception?

Answer 9

The impacts include:
* Decision making
* Interpersonal Interations
* Atrribution
* Stereotypes

Question 10

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define decision making:

Answer 10

Decision making refers to when first impression act as a soure of information when making decisions.

Question 11

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define Interpersonal Interactions:

Answer 11

Interpersonal Interations refers to when first impressions made have a lasting effect and humans act accodiningly to the ‘gut’ feeling they leave when interacting for the first time.

Question 12

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define attribution:

Answer 12

Attribution refers to an evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and also the process of making this evaluation.

Question 13

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are the functions of an attribution?

Answer 13

Attribution helps us understand why people behave the way they do by identifying the underlying causes of their actions.

Question 14

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

How is an attribution formed?

How vs When

Answer 14

An atrribution forms when we interact with others in our social world, as we are constantly observing behviours and thinking about their causes.

Question 15

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

When is an attribution formed?

How vs When

Answer 15

An attribution is formed when an individual has decided on potential causes for their own or others actions.

** It is important to note that different people may judge the same situation differently based on their own personal interanal bias

Question 16

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

List the steps of the cognitive process of attribution:

Answer 16

1. An Individual observes an outward act of behaviour (a person sees someone running down a busy street)
2. The individual forms a contious determination or acknowlegemnt of the behaviour (they actively decide the action they saw was a person running down a busy street)
3. The individual has an attribute that is percieved to be the cause of this behaviour (the person infers that the cause of the person running down the busy street is that they are eg: running late)

**based on individual attribute which can vary based on internal biases

Step 1 = Observation
Step 2 = Contious Acknowledgemnt
Step 3 = Atrribute Percieved

Remember:
Oscar = Chloe Adey’s OP

Question 17

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define an attitude:

Answer 17

An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor encompassing a person’s feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies towards an object, person, event, or idea.

Question 18

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Refer to the functions of an attitude:

Answer 18

• Attitudes influence how individuals think, feel, and behave.
• They provide a framework for responding to various stimuli in the environment.

E.g., a person may have a positive attitude toward recycling, leading them to support and engage in recycling activities.

Question 19

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is the criteria for an attitude?

Answer 19

The criteria for an evaluation refer to:
1. Evaluation
2. Settled and Stable
3. Learned through experiences

ESL - lik VSL

Question 20

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Explain the criteria for an attitude?

Answer 20

1. Evaluation - refers to the process of forming an opinion or judgment about something, involving assessing an object, person, event, or idea in a positive or negative way.
2. Settled and Stable - refers to our attributions being relatively permentant, meaing they can change but are generally consistent over time.
3. Learned through experiences - refers to holding attitudes as a form of knowledge that we developed over time and though personal experiences.

Question 21

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Distinguish the difference between an attribute and an attitude:

Answer 21

• Attribute: Focuses on evaluating the causes of behavior, explaining why someone acts a certain way.
• Attitude: Uses evaluations to influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

The distinction lies in attributes being about the causality and reasoning behind behaviors, while attitudes are about** overall evaluations and responses to entities.**

Question 22

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is the Tri-Componemnt model of attitudes?

Answer 22

The Tri-Componemnt model of attitudes refers to the illustration of the relationship between the affective, behavioural and cognitive components of our attitudes

**For an attitude to be present all aspects of this model must be accounted for.

Question 23

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define Affective attitudes:

**In relation to the Tri-component model

Answer 23

The affective aspect refers to the automatic feeling an individual get when they are presented with something

typically verbal

Question 24

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is an Affective attitude?

Answer 24

An affective attitude refers to emotions and intuitive feelings dirceted towards something reflected in our attitudes.

Question 25

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define Behavioural attitudes:

Answer 25

The bahvioural aspect refers to how an individual acts in occordance with the acctual attitude.

Question 26

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is the limitation of Behavioural attitudes?

Answer 26

The limitation is the fact that an individuals behaviours do not always align with their thoughts.

Question 27

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is a behavioural attitude?

Answer 27

A behavioural attitude refers to an individuals actions, meaning outward actions that reflect their point of view on something

Question 28

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define cognitive attitudes:

Answer 28

Cognitive attitudes refer to emotion free, objective thoughts on something reflecting belifes.

can also be expressed verbally not just thoughts

*Often separated on the basis that it involves more objective, factual information.

Question 29

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define a stereotype:

Refer to Tri-Conponent aspect it fits under

Answer 29

Stereotypes refer to the cognitive component of our attitudes.
They are a widely held belief and generlisation about a group.

Question 30

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are the benefits of stereotypes?

Answer 30

The benefits of stereotypes are that they allow us to make sense of our social world by apply simplified characteristics to all member of a group or category of people.

Question 31

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What is a limitation of stereotypes?

Answer 31

A limitation of stereotypes is that they:
* often lead to oversimplified and innaccurate judgements of individual people that fall within a group.
* also can lead to discrimination and racial motives

Question 32

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

Define discrepency?

In refrence to attitudes

Answer 32

Discrepancy refers to the difference between one’s expectations or beliefs about another person and the actual behavior or characteristics of that person.

Question 33

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

When do discrepencies occur?

Answer 33

Discrepencies occur in the process of judging and perceiving others when there is a mismatch between how we think someone should behave and how they actually behave.

Question 34

6A - Judging and Perceving Others

What are reasons for discrepencies?

Answer 34

1. Stereotypes can lead to expectations that do not match an individual’s actual behavior = discrepancy.
2. First impressions formed based on limited information can lead to expectations that may not align with later, more comprehensive observations.
3. Confirmation Bias refering to the tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms our existing beliefs can result in discrepancies.
4. Halo Effect refering to how first impressions can influence subsequent perceptions, leading to discrepancies when an individual’s other traits or behaviors do not align with the first impression.
5. Cultural Differences, misunderstandings or misinterpretations due to different cultural norms and behaviors can cause discrepancies.
6. Attribution Errors including misattributing the causes of someone’s behavior (e.g., attributing a situational behavior to their personality) can lead to discrepencies.
7. Lack of Information, Insufficient or inaccurate information about a person can lead to misjudgments and discrepancies in perception.
8. Emotional State of a perceiver’s current emotions can influence how they judge others, leading to discrepancies if their emotional state skews their perception.
9. Social Influence/Peer pressure/societal norms can shape expectations that may not align with an individual’s true behavior, causing discrepancies.

Question 35

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define Cognitive dissocance:

when doe this occur?

Answer 35

Cognitive dissocance refers to the psychological tention when an individual doesn’t or can’t achieve a comfortable state of mind, meaning thought, emotions and behaviours (Tri-component aspects/all main psychological factors) are inconcistent.

Question 36

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

What happens when an individual experiences cognitive dissonace?

Answer 36

When an individual experiences cognitive dissonace they are typically driven to reduce the feeling of the psychological tention by:
* changing their thoughts and emotions to align with their behaviours
* changing their behavior to align with their thoughts and emotions

Question 37

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define cognitive bias:

Answer 37

Cognitive bias refers to methods that use distort information to rationalise our decisions and alter the way individuals think about certain situations, which reduces psychological tentions/cognitove dissocance

Instead of using logic we alter information to be preferable to our decisions and rationalise them.

Question 38

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Provide an example of cognitive dissosance and bias refering to sleep scheduals

**Answers may vary

Answer 38

Cognitive dissonances
Thoughts: Going to bed early is good for my mental health

Behaviour: I stay up late on my phone every night

Cognitive Bias:
Change thoughts: the benefits of goimg to bed early are not guaranteed.
Behaviour = continue to stay up late

OR

Change Behaviour: start going to bed early
Though = sleep is good for my health

Question 39

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

List the cognitive biases:

Answer 39

1. Conformation bias
2. Halo effect
3. False-concensus bias
4. self-serving bias
5. actor-observer bias

CHAFS

Question 40

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define the confirmation bias:

Answer 40

The confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours and ignore contradictory information

Question 41

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Choose 3 of the following:

1. Political Beliefs
2. Health and Wellness
3. Stereotypes
4. Sports
5. Personal Relationships
6. Academic Performance
7. Medical Diagnoses

And explain how they can be considered a confirmation bias

answers may vary

Answer 41

Political Beliefs: An individual supporting political party (A) tends to seek out news sources and articles that align with their views while ignoring sources that contradict their beliefs.
Health and Wellness: Someone who believes in the benefits of a particular diet might only read success stories while ignoring scientific studies/reports that highlight its drawbacks or lack of effectiveness.
Stereotypes: A person who holds a stereotype about a particular group may notice and remember instances that confirm their stereotype while overlooking or forgetting instances that disprove it.
Sports: A fan of a sports team might attribute their team’s wins to skill and hard work but blame losses on bad refereeing or luck.
Personal Relationships:If someone believes their friend is very kind, they may focus on and remember acts of kindness while ignoring or rationalizing instances when the friend behaves inconsiderately.
Academic Performance: A teacher who has a preconceived notion that a student is highly intelligent may notice and praise the student’s good performance and overlook mistakes or poor performance.
Medical Diagnoses: A doctor who has a preliminary diagnosis in mind might focus on symptoms and test results that confirm the diagnosis while overlooking or undervaluing evidence that points to a different condition.

Question 42

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define the halo effect:

Answer 42

The halo effect refers to the tendency for the impressions we form about a quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects.

Question 43

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Choose 3 of the followng:

1. job interveiws
2. performance reveiws
3. teacher evaluations
4. physical attractiveness
5. leadership perception
6. social media influences
7. product reveiw

And explain how the halo effect plays as a bias.

answers may vary

Answer 43

Job Interviews: If a candidate is well-presented (dressed/confident), the interviewer might assume they are also highly skilled, even if their qualifications are average.
Performance Reviews:An employee who excels in one area (punctuality) might be rated highly across all performance metrics, even if their performance in other areas (teamwork or creativity) is average.
Teacher Evaluations: A student who performs well academically might be perceived by a teacher as also being well-behaved and hardworking, even if they occasionally misbehave or show a lack of effort in certain tasks.
Physical Attractiveness:A physically attractive person might be judged as more sociable/intelligent/successful compared to a less attractive person, regardless of their actual personality traits/achievements.
Leadership Perception: A charismatic leader who speaks confidently might be perceived as more effective and competent, even if their actual leadership skills and decision-making are lacking.
Social Media Influencers: An influencer who presents themselves as knowledgeable in one area (fitness) might be trusted by their followers in unrelated areas (finance or nutrition), despite lacking expertise in those fields.
Product Reviews: If a consumer has a positive experience with one product from a brand, they might assume all products from that brand are of similar high quality, even without direct experience with other products.

Question 44

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define the self-serving bias:

Answer 44

The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute positive success to our internal charater and actions and attribute our failure to external factors or situational causes

Question 45

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Choose 3 of the following:

1. Academic Performance
2. Sports and Competitions
3. Workplace Achievements
4. Driving
5. Parenting
6. Health and Fitness
7. Sales and Business
8. Relationships
9. Artistic Performance
10. Public Speaking:

and explain how they can be an example of the self-serving bias.

Answers may vary

Answer 45

Academic Performance: When a student gets a high grade on an exam, they attribute it to their intelligence and hard work. However, if they receive a low grade, they blame the test’s difficulty or the teacher’s unfairness.
Sports and Competitions: An athlete who wins a game credits their victory to their skill and training. If they lose, they might attribute the loss to bad weather conditions, biased referees, or poor equipment.
Workplace Achievements: When an employee completes a successful project, they might attribute it to their competence and effort. If a project fails, they might blame team members, inadequate resources, or lack of support from management.
Driving: A driver who narrowly avoids an accident might attribute it to their quick reflexes and driving skill. If they get into an accident, they might blame the other driver, road conditions, or vehicle malfunction.
Parenting: When children succeed in school or sports, parents might attribute the success to their parenting skills. If the children struggle or misbehave, parents might blame external factors such as peers, teachers, or the media.
Health and Fitness: A person who achieves their fitness goals might attribute it to their dedication and healthy lifestyle. If they fail to meet their goals, they might blame a busy schedule, poor genetics, or misinformation.
Sales and Business: A salesperson who exceeds their targets might attribute their success to their persuasive skills and hard work. If they fail to meet targets, they might blame market conditions, poor leads, or competition.
Relationships: When a romantic relationship is going well, individuals might attribute it to their own positive qualities and efforts. If the relationship faces problems, they might blame their partner’s behavior or external stressors.
Artistic Performance: An artist who receives praise for their work might attribute it to their talent and creativity. If they receive criticism, they might blame the audience’s lack of understanding.
Public Speaking: A speaker who delivers a successful presentation might attribute it to their preparation and speaking skills. If the presentation goes poorly, they might blame technical difficulties, an uninterested audience, or time constraints.

Question 46

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define the false-consensus bias:

Answer 46

The false-consensus bias refers to the tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes that we do.

(when people believe that others think and feel the same way they do more often than they actually do.)

Question 47

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Choose 3 of the following:

1. Political Beliefs
2. Diet and Lifestyle Choices
3. Workplace Practices
4. Entertainment Preferences
5. Social Activities
6. Parenting Styles
7. Environmental Practices
8. Shopping Preferences
9. Exercise Routines
10. Tech Usage

and explain how they can be an example of the false-consensus bias.

answers may vary

Answer 47

Political Beliefs: A person who supports a particular political party might assume that most of their friends, family, and coworkers also support that party, even if many do not.
Diet and Lifestyle Choices: Someone who follows a vegetarian diet might believe that many others also choose to be vegetarian and think it’s a common lifestyle choice, even if it is not.
Workplace Practices: An employee who prefers working late might assume that most of their colleagues also like to stay late at the office, even if many prefer to leave on time.
Entertainment Preferences A person who loves a specific TV show might think that most people watch and enjoy the same show, even if it has a smaller, niche audience.
Social Activities: Someone who enjoys going out to parties every weekend might overestimate the number of their peers who also like to party frequently, even if many prefer quieter activities.
Parenting Styles: A parent who believes in strict discipline might assume that most other parents also favor strict discipline, even if many parents have different approaches.
Environmental Practices: A person who recycles regularly might think that most people also recycle and care about environmental issues to the same extent they do, even if recycling habits vary widely.
Shopping Preferences: Someone who shops exclusively online might assume that most people prefer online shopping over going to physical stores, even if many still enjoy shopping in person.
Exercise Routines: A fitness enthusiast who exercises daily might believe that a majority of people also prioritize daily workouts, even if many do not exercise regularly.
Tech Usage: A person who is very active on social media might assume that most of their peers are equally engaged on social media platforms, even if some people use social media much less frequently or not at all.

Question 48

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Define the actor-observer bias:

Answer 48

The actor-observer bias refers to the tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors and situational causes while attributing other peoples actions to internal factors.

Question 49

6B - Cognitive dissocance and bias

Choose 3 of the following:

1. Academic Performance
2. Driving Behavior
3. Workplace Performance
4. Social Interactions
5. Sports Performance
6. Parenting
7. Health Habits
8. Relationship Conflicts
9. Customer Service
10. Household Chores

and explain how they can be an example of the actor-observer bias.

answers may vary

Answer 49

Academic Performance:
Actor: If you fail a test, you might blame it on the test being unfair or not having enough time to study (external factors).
Observer: If your friend fails the test, you might think they didn’t study hard enough or aren’t good at the subject (internal factors).
Driving Behavior:
Actor: If you cut someone off in traffic, you might justify it by saying you were in a rush or didn’t see them (external factors).
Observer: If another driver cuts you off, you might think they are reckless or inconsiderate (internal factors).
Workplace Performance:
Actor: If you miss a deadline, you might blame it on a heavy workload or unclear instructions (external factors).
Observer: If a colleague misses a deadline, you might think they are disorganized or lazy (internal factors).
Social Interactions:
Actor: If you arrive late to a meeting, you might blame traffic or an unexpected delay (external factors).
Observer: If a friend arrives late, you might think they are poor at managing their time (internal factors).
Sports Performance:
Actor: If you perform poorly in a game, you might blame it on bad weather or poor officiating (external factors).
Observer: If a teammate performs poorly, you might think they lack skill or didn’t practice enough (internal factors).
Parenting:
Actor: If you lose your temper with your child, you might blame it on a stressful day or external pressures (external factors).
Observer: If another parent loses their temper, you might think they are naturally impatient or not good at handling stress (internal factors).
Health Habits:
Actor: If you skip a workout, you might blame it on being too busy or feeling unwell (external factors).
Observer: If a friend skips a workout, you might think they are not committed or lazy (internal factors).
Relationship Conflicts:
Actor: If you argue with your partner, you might blame it on a bad day or external stressors (external factors).
Observer: If your partner starts an argument, you might think they are overly sensitive or difficult (internal factors).
Customer Service:
Actor: If you are rude to a service worker, you might blame it on having a tough day or the service being slow (external factors).
Observer: If a service worker is rude to you, you might think they are unfriendly or unprofessional (internal factors).
Household Chores:
Actor: If you forget to do the dishes, you might blame it on being too busy or having too much on your mind (external factors).
Observer: If your roommate forgets to do the dishes, you might think they are lazy or irresponsible (internal factors).

Question 50

6C - Heuristics

Define Heuristics:

Answer 50

Heuristics refer to information processing stratergies (mental shortcuts) that enable individuals to form judgements, make decisions and solve problems quickly and efficiently.

Question 51

6C - Heuristics

What are the benefits of heuristics impact?

Answer 51

heuristics have both positive and negatie impacts on individuals quick, automatic decision making and problem solving abilities

So you don’t have to thoroughly analyse all available information
Limitation - can lead to biases and errors in judgment.

Question 52

6C - Heuristics

How do heuristics develop?

Answer 52

Heuristic processings develop overtime due to learnt experiences as we age and learning developments.

Question 53

6C - Heuristics

What are positive influences on heurustics?

Answer 53

Positive influences on heuristics include:
1. saving time when making decisions and problem solving
2. sometimes resulting in accurate decision making and problem solving
3. have the ability to adapt
4. can protect individuals from harm and dangerous situation

Question 54

6C - Heuristics

What are negative influences on heurustics?

(limitations)

Answer 54

Negative influences on heuristics include:
1. decisions are made quickly and can be subject/prone to error
2. base-rate fallacy (type of bias)

Question 55

6C - Heuristics

Define the base-rate fallacy?

Answer 55

The base rate fallacy refers to a bias in which decisions, social perceptions and judgements are influences more by vivid memories and experiences then statistical facts and evidence.

(limitation of heuristics)

Question 56

6C - Heuristics

Whats are the 4 types of heuristics

Answer 56

1. Anchoring Heuristics
2. Availability Heuristics
3. Representative heuristics
4. Affect Heuristics

An(na) and Av(a) Re(ek) Af(ter) Heuristics

Question 57

6C - Heuristics

Define Anchoring Heuristics

Answer 57

Anchoring heuristics rely on the initial information received by an individual when making decisions. It refers to the ‘mental anchor’ we use at the time and in the future for guidance on where to begin when solving problems.

Like first impressions/confirmation bias

Question 58

6C - Heuristics

show how Shopping Discounts, Real Estate and Restaurant Menus can relate to anchoring heuristics:

(involves money/numbers)

Answer 58

Shopping Discounts:
When a store advertises a coat originally priced at $300 now on sale for $150, the original price acts as an anchor. Shoppers perceive the $150 price as a great deal, even if the coat’s actual value might be closer to $150.
Real Estate: If a house is initially listed for $500,000, potential buyers use this price as an anchor. Even if the price is later reduced to $450,000, buyers might still see it as a good deal relative to the original anchor price.
Restaurant Menus: If a restaurant menu lists a high-priced dish at $50, other dishes priced at $30 or $35 might seem more reasonable, even if they are still relatively expensive. The $50 dish serves as an anchor, making other prices appear more acceptable.

Question 59

6C - Heuristics

Define Avaliability Heuristics:

Answer 59

Avaliability heuristics rely on easily accesable information to make decisions quickly. Involves the base-rate fallacy.

Like confirmation bias/false-consensus bias

Question 60

6C - Heuristics

show how Travel fears, Crime Rates and health risks can relate to avaliablity heuristics:

Answer 60

Travel Fears: After seeing multiple news reports about plane crashes, a person might overestimate the danger of flying and choose to drive instead, even though statistically, flying is much safer.
Crime Rates: If someone frequently hears about burglaries in their neighborhood on social media, they might believe that the crime rate is higher than it actually is and invest in extensive home security systems.
Health Risks: After reading several articles about rare diseases, an individual might start worrying excessively about contracting those diseases, despite their actual low probability, and might avoid certain activities or places as a result.

Question 61

6C - Heuristics

Define Representative Heuristics:

Answer 61

Representative Heuristics relies on the similarity of an individuals ready known information to other information on the characteristics of a person. During the the base-rate fallacy occurs.

like stereotypes/confirmation bias/halo effect

Question 62

6C - Heuristics

show how Job interviews, medical diagnoses and criminal profiling can relate to representative heuristics:

Answer 62

Job Interviews: If an interviewer meets a candidate who is articulate, well-dressed, and confident, they might assume the candidate is highly competent and suitable for the job because these traits fit their prototype of an ideal employee. This judgment is made despite not having seen the candidate’s actual work performance.
Medical Diagnoses: A doctor might diagnose a young patient with a common cold rather than considering other illnesses because the patient’s symptoms (cough, runny nose, fever) fit the prototype of a common cold. The doctor might overlook less common diseases with similar symptoms.
Criminal Profiling: If a person fits the stereotype of a criminal (e.g., wearing certain types of clothing or having a particular demeanor), law enforcement might assume they are more likely to be guilty of a crime. This judgment is based on representativeness rather than actual evidence.

Question 63

6C - Heuristics

Define affect Heuristics:

Answer 63

Affact Heuristics rely on emotions and ‘gut feelings’ to make a judgement of a situation or decision.

think affective

Question 64

6C - Heuristics

show how Investment Decisions, health risks and charity donations can relate to affect heuristics.

Answer 64

Investment Decisions: An investor feels excited about a tech startup because they have a positive emotional reaction to its charismatic CEO and innovative product. This emotional response leads them to invest, despite not thoroughly analyzing the company’s financials.
Health Risks: After watching a compelling and emotional documentary about the dangers of processed foods, a person feels fearful and decides to avoid all processed foods. This decision is driven more by the emotional impact of the documentary than by balanced, scientific evidence.
Charity Donations: A person feels deep empathy and sorrow after seeing images of children suffering from malnutrition on a charity’s website, leading them to donate a significant amount of money. The emotional response drives the decision more than a rational assessment of the charity’s effectiveness.

Question 65

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Define stereotypes

Answer 65

Stereotypes refer to a widely held belief and generalisation about a group (people, animal, objects)

Question 66

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Define stigma:

Answer 66

Stigma refers to the feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others.

Question 67

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Define Discrimination:

Answer 67

Discrimination refers to an often unjust treatment (exclusion/different treatment) of people due to their membership within a social category. It is a voluntary act.

links to behaviour aspect of tri-component modle

Question 68

What are the 2 types of discrimination?

Answer 68

1. Direct - when individuals are treated unfair because of association with a certain group
2. Indirect - when a rule disadvantages a group of individuals

Question 69

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Define Prejudice:

Answer 69

Prejudice refers to an often negative preconception (steming before interaction) held against people within a certain group or social category. Stems from an emotion without refence to reason/logic. Can be uncontious

links to affective aspect of tri-component modle

Question 70

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Define Wellbeing:

Answer 70

Wellbeing refers to an individuals current psychological state, inolving their ability to think and process information as well as regulate emotions.

Question 71

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

Explain how stereotypes, stigma, discrimination, prejudice and wellbeing all relate to each other:

Answer 71

people develop prejudices toward socail groups, from those preconceptions they may follow social stereotypes leading to discrimination against that group which results the the individuals in the group feeling stigma as an tehy devlop lows self-esteem affecting their wellbing.

Realates to wellbeing
1. stereotype - labels - wellbeing
2. Stigma - low self-esteem - wellbeing
3. prejudice - fear/misunderstanding - wellbing
4. discrimination - abuse - wellbeing

**all are closely linked but stereotypes and discrimination to wellbing (from perspective on individual discriminating), howeve they are still linked

Question 72

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

What are the influences of stigma, stereotypes, discrimination and prejudice on wellbeing in individuals?

Answer 72

Stigma, stereotypes, discrimination, and prejudice can significantly harm an individual’s wellbeing. These negative influences can damage self-esteem and confidence, elevate stress levels, and lead to increased rumination (continuously thinking about the same thoughts) on negative experiences. Consequently, they raise the risk of developing mental health issues.

Question 73

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

What are the influences of stigma, stereotypes, discrimination and prejudice on wellbeing in targeted groups?

Answer 73

Stigma, stereotypes, discrimination, and prejudice can severely impact the wellbeing of targeted groups. They contribute to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders, social isolation from other communities, and increased levels of substance abuse. These negative influences also lead to social anxiety and fear of becoming victims of hate crimes. Additionally, they create barriers to accessing treatment due to negative labels and stigma.

Question 74

6D - Prejudice, Discrimination and stigma

What can we do to reduce prejudice, discrimination and stigma and why might they help?

Answer 74

Education:Providing accurate information can reduce misinformation and assumptions. For example, reading articles and attending workshops to better understand how mental health disorders affect people can foster empathy and reduce stigma. Education raises awareness and corrects misconceptions, promoting a more informed and accepting society.
Inter-group Contact: Engaging in meaningful interactions with people from different backgrounds helps to better understand their experiences and views. For instance, spending time with a classmate from a different culture and asking questions about their traditions can break down negative mindsets and build mutual respect. Such interactions reduce prejudice by highlighting commonalities and humanizing those who are different.
Social Media Activism: Actively calling out and reporting instances of prejudice and discrimination on social media platforms, such as TikTok, helps to create a more inclusive online environment. By challenging discriminatory behavior and supporting positive dialogue, social media activism can influence public attitudes and reduce the prevalence of harmful stereotypes.
Law enforcment: Enforcing laws that prevent discrimination and protect minority groups, such as the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, gives a voice to those who are often marginalized. Legal measures ensure that discriminatory actions have consequences, promoting equality and encouraging a culture of respect and fairness. Legislation helps to institutionalize anti-discrimination principles and provides recourse for victims of prejudice.

Question 75

7A - social groups and culture

Why do humans interact?

Answer 75

Humans interatct as we are intrinsirally social creatures/inheritly social beings and have a need/desire to connect, interact and form relationships with others.

Question 76

7A - social groups and culture

Define an In-group:

Answer 76

An In-group refers to a group an individual belongs to and indentifies with.

Question 77

7A - social groups and culture

Define an Out-group:

Answer 77

An out-group refers to a group an individual doesn’t belong to or indentify with.

Question 78

7A - social groups and culture

Identify the 4 social group rules:

Answer 78

1. there must be 2+ members
2. the members must interact with eachother
3. The members need to influence each other (thoughts or behaviour)
4. There needs to be a common goal or purpose shared by the group members (winning a game of volleyball)

Question 79

7A - social groups and culture

Define a norm:

Answer 79

A norm is a standard, value,
or rule that outlines an appropriate behaviour or experience

Question 80

7A - social groups and culture

Identify group norms and their impact on individual behaviour:

Answer 80

School: norm = Wearing the
correct uniform (Formal norm). If the norm is upheld, the individual may be sacrificing their personal style but will avoid negative consequences from the group.
If the norm is not upheld, an individual may be punished by group members (teachers) or may even be removed from the group if the behaviour continues (such
as being expelled.
Friendship group: norm = Sitting together at lunchtime (Informal norm), if the norm is upheld, the individual is likely to feel closer to and bond with the group.
If the norm is not upheld, there may be group conflict and the individual may be removed from the group.

Question 81

7A - social groups and culture

How does cognitive dissosance relate to social groups?

Answer 81

Cognitive dissosance extends to your experiences within your social circles, and can be avoided by ensuring that your in-groups share
the same values as you.

Question 82

7A - social groups and culture

Define the Social identity theory:

Answer 82

Social identity theory refers to the tendency for people to favour their in-group over an out-group in order to enhance their sense of
self-esteem

The Social identity theory, when taken to the extreme, can perpetuate negative
beliefs and behaviours (prjudice/stigma/discrimination)

Question 83

7A - social groups and culture

Degine social loafing:

Answer 83

Social loafing refers to an individual’s reductionin effort when work is performed in a group as compared to individually, due to the belief that others will put in the effort

Question 84

7A - social groups and culture

what are factors that promote social loafing?

Answer 84

• The ease of the task. Individuals are more likely to loaf whilst completing group tasks that they consider to be easy, as compared to more difficult tasks.
• Meaningfulness of the task. Individuals are more likely to engage in social loafing if they don’t personally identify with the task.
• For example, you may be more likely to loaf in a subject that you have no interest in, as compared to your favourite subject.

Question 85

7A - social groups and culture

What are factors that prevent socail loafing?

Answer 85

• Clear indications of individual efforts within a group. For example, having to write your name next to the section of work you completed for a school assignment.
• Group interaction. The more that a group interacts during task completion, the less likely individuals are to loaf.

Question 86

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Define Obedience:

Answer 86

Obedience refers to complying with commands which are often given by a source of authority.

Question 87

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

List factors of obedience and explain how they influence behaviour:

non-exhaustive list, there are more factors that affect obedience

Use an example

Answer 87

1. Status of authority figure - Individuals are more likely to obey the commands of those they perceive to have status or power. For example, an individual might be more likely to show their licence to a police officer (who they may perceive to have high status or power) than their sibling (who they may perceive to have low status or power).
2. Proximity - Individuals are more likely to obey the commands of those to whom they are physically close. For example, a student may be more likely to respond to a teacher if they are standing right next to them, rather than on the other side of the room.
   Individuals are also more likely to obey someone who they have a closer relationship with. For example, a student may be more likely to listen to a teacher they have been taught by before and know than a teacher who they have just met.
3. Groups Pressure - Individuals are more likely to obey commands when they observe others obeying the commands. For example, if students observe a majority of their class sitting down as their teacher commanded, they are more likely to also sit down.

Question 88

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What are the benefits of obedience?

Answer 88

The benefits of obedience includes helping to ensure a functioning society and also guiding individuals and informing them of how to behave in certain situations

Question 89

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What are the limitations of obedience?

Answer 89

The limitaions of obedience include the ability to be easily manipulated (Milgram’s obedience experiment)

Question 90

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the primary aim of Milgram’s 1963 obedience experiment?

Answer 90

The primary aim of the experiment was to measure the extent to which individuals would obey the commands of an authority figure, even when those commands required inflicting pain and suffering on another individual.

Question 91

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Describe the participant demographics in Milgram’s experiment.

Answer 91

40 male participants, ranging from around 20 to 50 years of age, who had a range of different jobs.

Question 92

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How were participants recruited for Milgram’s study?

Answer 92

Participants responded to advertisements in the newspaper or mail sent directly to them, which informed them that the study was examining processes involved in learning and memory. (ethical concern)

Question 93

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the role of the confederate in Milgram’s experiment?

Answer 93

The confederate acted as the ‘student’ who pretended to be in pain that the real participant, inflicted on them due to authorical comands from the teacher. The real student administered what they believed to be real (but were fake) electric shocks.

Question 94

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Outline the key steps in the procedure of Milgram’s experiment.

Answer 94

1. Participants met the experimenter and confederate.
2. Participants drew rigged roles, always becoming the teacher.
3. The confederate was placed in an electric chair, the teacher was informed that the shocks to the student were painful but not dangerous
4. Participants administered shocks for each incorrect answer.
5. The shocks increased in intensity with each mistake.
6. Participants were urged to continue despite the confederate’s protests and eventual silence.

Question 95

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How was the electric shock machine set up to appear more convincing to the participants?

Answer 95

The machine had labels indicating increasing levels of shock intensity, including “Danger” and “XXX” for the highest levels, and participants were given a small electric shock (45 volts) to demonstrate its authenticity.

Question 96

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What specific responses did the confederate give during the experiment to simulate pain?

Answer 96

The confederate pleaded to be released at 150 volts, banged on the wall at 300 volts, and stopped responding after 300 volts.

Question 97

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Did many participants show significant distress and seek guidance from the experimenter?

Answer 97

Yes, at the 300 volt mark participants typically sought guidence from the experimenter once the ‘student’ had stopped responding.

Question 98

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What were the results of the Milgram experiment in terms of participant obedience?

Answer 98

participants complied, only stopping around the 300 volt mark

Question 99

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What conclusion did Milgram draw from the results of his experiment?

Answer 99

He concluded that people have a tendency to obey individuals who are perceived to have authority, even if it involves inflicting harm on another person.

Question 100

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

List 3 ethical guidelines that were violated in Milgram’s obedience experiment.

Answer 100

1. No-harm principle (psychological and physical pain inflicted),
2. Withdrawal rights (participants felt obliged to continue and were not explicitly told they could leave)
3. Deception (participants were misled about the true nature of the study and the authenticity of the shocks).

Question 101

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What historical event partly inspired Milgram to conduct his obedience study?

Answer 101

The atrocities of the Holocaust, where many individuals claimed they were simply obeying orders.

Question 102

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What are some criticisms of Milgram’s study ?

Answer 102

Non-standardised instructions and procedures, uncertainty about the interpretation of results, and the oversimplification of the study’s conclusion.

Question 103

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Define conformity?

Answer 103

Conformity refers to adjusting one’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviours to match those of others, a social group, or a social situation.

Question 104

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Why do people conform?

Answer 104

As humans we have an innate desire to belong, due to this desire, we often act in ways that allow us to fit in with others.

Question 105

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What is an example of conformity?

Answer 105

An example of this would be an individual buying new clothes after being told that their clothes are unusual. In this situation, when someone has been clearly singled out and made to feel different from others, they are likely to** feel uncomfortable and may feel embarrassed** or distressed. Due to wanting to alleviate (relieve or resolve) these negative feelings, one would often choose to conform.

Question 106

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What factors influence conformity? (explain each)

Answer 106

1. Social norms, which are society’s unofficial rules and expectations regarding how individuals should act
2. Groupthink, which is a psychological phenomenon in which assumed group unanimity overrules individuals’ realistic appraisal of consequences.
3. Group shift, which refers to a condition in which the influence of the group causes an individual to adopt a more extreme position.
4. Deindividuation, which refers to the tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group.

think:
Social Dynamics and Group Guidelines:

Social Norms
Deviation
Group Shift
Group Think

Question 107

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How do these factors, social norms, groupthink, group shift, deindividuation influence conformity?

Answer 107

1. Social norms: Individuals may be more likely to conform so that they don’t appear abnormal for not following social norms. For example, someone looking for a new job may feel obliged to shake hands with their interviewer to avoid being perceived as abnormal. This is due to a social norm in Western cultures that you shake hands when first meeting someone new, particularly in formal settings
2. Groupthink: Individuals are more likely to conform if there is a greater extent of groupthink, as the greater perceived unanimity overrules their judgement. For example, a student may disagree with their teacher’s suggestion of how to spend their free time, but if they perceive that all of their peers unanimously agree with their teacher, they are more likely to conform.
3. Group shift: Individuals are more likely to conform (due to group shift) if the group in which they are in is highly influential to them. For example, an individual is more likely to conform and adopt the political views of their boss and co-workers (who they may perceive to be highly influential) than their siblings (who they may perceive as less influential).
4. Deindividuation: Individuals are more likely to conform if they believe that their behaviours, thoughts, and feelings are invisible or anonymous. In group settings, this can often lead to individuals behaving in ways that they would not when alone, as there is a diffusion of accountability and responsibility. For example, if an individual is at a crowded community pool and someone is drowning but no one else is doing anything, they may conform and not help as they feel invisible and not responsible.

Question 108

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the aim of Solomon Asch’s 1951 conformity experiment?

Answer 108

The aim was to investigate whether individuals would conform to a group and to what extent people would conform to incorrect answers provided by the group.

Question 109

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What task did participants perform in Asch’s conformity study?

Answer 109

Participants were asked to match lines based on their similarity in length, comparing one target line to three comparison lines and selecting the one that matched.

Question 110

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the setup of the group in Asch’s experiment?

Answer 110

Each group had one true participant and several confederates who were instructed to give unanimous, incorrect responses to the line-matching task.

Question 111

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How was the level of conformity measured in Asch’s study?

Answer 111

The level of conformity was measured by how often the true participant aligned their responses with the incorrect answers given by the confederates.

Question 112

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the key finding regarding participants’ behavior in Asch’s experiment?

Answer 112

The key finding was that many participants conformed to the group’s incorrect answers at least once during the experiment.

Question 113

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

Who were the participants in Asch’s conformity study?

Answer 113

The participants were 50 male first-year university students who believed they were participating in a study on visual perception.

Question 114

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What was the true nature of the study?

Answer 114

After the experiment, participants were informed that the study actually aimed to investigate conformity and that the other group members were confederates.

Question 115

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What did Asch conclude about group size and conformity?

Answer 115

Asch concluded that people are often willing to ignore reality and provide incorrect answers in order to conform to the rest of the group, highlighting the power of group pressure.

Question 116

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How did unanimity among group members affect conformity in Asch’s study?

unanimity = agreement by all people involved; consensus

Answer 116

Asch found that having even one confederate dissent from the unanimous incorrect answers significantly decreased the level of conformity among participants.

Question 117

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What percentage of participants conformed at least once in Asch’s experiment?

Answer 117

74% of the participants conformed to at least one clearly incorrect answer provided by the confederates during the experiment.

Question 118

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How did participants feel during the experiment, even if they did not conform?

Answer 118

Even those who did not conform reported feeling confused and doubted their own responses due to the unanimous incorrect answers of the confederates.

Question 119

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What are some similarities between obedience and conformity?

Answer 119

Both obedience and conformity influence individual behavior and are seen in everyday life, such as a student obeying a teacher and conforming to their expectations.

Question 120

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How does Milgram’s obedience experiment illustrate the concept of obedience?

Answer 120

Milgram’s experiment showed that individuals are likely to obey authority figures even when it involves inflicting harm on another person, influenced by the authority’s status and proximity.

Question 121

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How does Asch’s conformity experiment illustrate the concept of conformity?

Answer 121

Asch’s experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to group pressure by giving incorrect answers to match the group’s unanimous but wrong responses.

Question 122

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How does social media contribute to conformity and deindividuation?

Answer 122

Social media can lead to deindividuation, where individuals lose their sense of individuality and conform to group norms, potentially resulting in behaviors like online hate.

Question 123

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

What is the primary difference between obedience and conformity?

Answer 123

Obedience involves complying with explicit commands from an authority figure, while conformity involves adjusting one’s behavior to match the expectations or behaviors of a group.

Question 124

7B - The influence of obedience and conformity on behaviour

How does the role of authority differ in obedience compared to conformity?

Answer 124

In obedience, an authority figure issues direct commands that must be followed, whereas in conformity, there is no explicit authority; instead, individuals adjust their behavior to align with the majority or group norms.

Question 125

7D - Independance

Define Anti-conformity

Answer 125

Anti-conformity refers to the ability to develop independance, meaining the ability to seperate self from group.

Question 126

7D - Independance

What is the self-determination theory?

Answer 126

The self-determination theory refers to the concept that people achieve self-determination when basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) are met.

Question 127

7D - Independance

Define autonomy:

Answer 127

Autonomy refers to the need to be able act authentically, based on individual choice and instrinsic motivation (act of doing smth w/o external rewards).

REWARDS

Question 128

7D - Independance

Define competence:

Answer 128

Competence refers to the need to feel as though you have the skill required to meaningfully **carry out bahaviours **that affect your environment.

SKILLS

Question 129

7D - Independance

Define Relatedness:

Answer 129

Relatedness refers to the need to feel a sense of attachment, connection to and belonging with other people.

BELONGING

Question 130

7D - Independance

What is the self-determination theory driven by?

Answer 130

Instrinctive motivation and Extrinctive motivation

Question 131

7D - Independance

Define extrinsic motivation:

Answer 131

Extrinsic motivation refers to individuals engaging in activities and **behaviours for their external benefit **(rewards/money/aviodance of judgement)

Question 132

7D - Independance

Define Instrictive motivation:

Answer 132

Instrinctive motivation refers to individuals **engaging in activities /behaviours for their internal benefit **(personal growth/knowledge/independence)

Question 133

7D - Independance

List the factors of anti-conformity:

Answer 133

1. desire to promote change
2. individuality
3. reactance
4. social support

Question 134

7D - Independance

Define ‘Desire to promote change’

Answer 134

The desire to promote change is driven by an individuals belief that a situstion is unethical, unfair or incorrect, reflecting strong morals.

Question 135

7D - Independance

How does the desire to promote change empower anti-conformity behaviour?

Answer 135

This empowers anti-conformity behavior by prioritizing justice over social norms and fostering a strong moral attitude backed by the belief that change can occur. Individuals who want to promote change often resist conforming to the status quo, driven by their motivation to challenge existing norms and behaviors

Question 136

7D - Independance

Define individuality:

Answer 136

Individuality refers to a person’s distinct identity which reduces the feeling of anonymity (condition of being anonymus) and enhances their sense of personal responsibility.

Question 137

7D - Independance

How does individuality empower anti-conformity behaviour?

Answer 137

Empowering anti-conformity behavior involves emphasizing personal identity, which can lead individuals resisting conforming to maintain their distinctiveness. This process of individuation reduces groupthink, as individuals feel a heightened sense of personal responsibility. As a result, there is an observable impact on their willingness to act independently, fostering a stronger commitment to their principles and reducing the influence of group pressure.

Question 138

7D - Independance

Define Reactance:

Answer 138

Reactance refers to the **motivational state of distress and resistance **that arises when an individual’s personal freedom is removed or threatened by an external force. This often leads to a desire to regain that freedom, resulting in the individual doing the opposite of what they are told due to the restrictions placed on their freedom.

Question 139

7D - Independance

How does reactance empower anti-conformity behaviour?

Answer 139

Reactance empowers anti-conformity by energizing and guiding behaviors with the belief that norms restrict liberty. When individuals feel their freedom to choose their own behaviors is being restricted, they experience reactance, leading them to resist conforming in order to reassert their autonomy. This resistance is driven by the desire to regain personal freedom and oppose the limitations imposed by societal norms.

Question 140

7D - Independance

Define Social support:

Answer 140

Social support involves others sharing a similar attitude with the individual, which can help form a deviant subgroup with values and norms that differ from those of the dominant society.

Question 141

7D - Independance

How does social support empower anti-conformity behaviour?

Answer 141

Empowering anti-conformity through the ally effect: Having support from others who share similar views or dissent from the majority can bolster an individual’s determination to resist conforming. This support offers validation and diminishes the fear of isolation.

Question 142

7D - Independance

Define the Ally-effect:

Answer 142

The ally-effect refers to a particularly credible aspect and a powerful form of social support where having even one ally who shares similar views can significantly strengthen an individual’s resolve to resist conforming. This effect provides validation, reduces the fear of isolation, and increases the individual’s confidence in their stance.

Question 143

7D - Independance

How does anti-conformity involve resisting social pressures and challenging norms?

Answer 143

Anti-conformity behaviour involves actively resisting others expectations and deliberately rejecting pressures to conform and expressing attitudes and behaviors that challenge social norms with which you disagree.